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Kafue River Through the Copperbelt

Before the river reaches the Copperbelt towns, however, it loses its wide floodplain, the channel narrows to 30–40 m and it meanders less, in a shallow valley only 40 m or so lower than the surrounding plateau. It flows close to the Copperbelt towns of Chililabombwe, Chingola and Mufulira, and through the outskirts of Nchanga and Kitwe. The popular picnic spot the Hippo Pool north of Chingola is protected as a national monument.

Kafue River Through the Copperbelt

In the Copperbelt, water is taken from the river to irrigate small farms and market gardens. At Kitwe it changes course to the south-west and flows through forests and areas of flat rock over which it floods in the wet season, keeping to a channel about 50 m wide in the dry season.

Brass – Early copper zinc alloys

In West Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean early copper zinc alloys are now known in small numbers from a number of third Millennium BC sites in the Aegean, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia and from 2nd Millennium BC sites in West India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq and Israel. However, isolated examples of copper-zinc alloys are known in China from as early as the 5th Millennium BC.

Brass – Early copper zinc alloys

However the large number of copper-zinc alloys now known suggests that at least some were deliberately manufactured and many have zinc contents of more than 12% wt which would have resulted in a distinctive golden color.

Brass – Early copper zinc alloys

Oreichalkos, the Ancient Greek translation of this term, was later adapted to the Latin aurichalcum meaning “golden copper” which became the standard term for brass

Rectifier – Selenium and copper oxide rectifiers

Both selenium and copper oxide rectifiers have somewhat better tolerance of momentary voltage transients than silicon rectifiers.

Rectifier – Selenium and copper oxide rectifiers

Typically these rectifiers were made up of stacks of metal plates or washers, held together by a central bolt, with the number of stacks determined by voltage; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive battery charger rectifier might have only one cell: the high-voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might have dozens of stacked plates. Current density in an air-cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per square inch of active area (about 90 mA per square centimeter).

History of technology – Copper and Bronze Ages

These combined factors made possible the development of metal smelting, with copper and later bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, being the materials of choice, although polished stone tools continued to be used for a considerable time owing to their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).

History of technology – Copper and Bronze Ages

This technological trend apparently began in the Fertile Crescent, and spread outward over time

Thermal copper pillar bump

Thermal copper pillar bump

Thermal copper pillar bump

The thermal copper pillar bump, also known as the “thermal bump”, is a thermoelectric device made from thin-film thermoelectric material embedded in flip chip interconnects (in particular copper pillar solder bumps) for use in electronics and optoelectronic packaging, including: flip chip packaging of CPU and GPU integrated circuits (chips), laser diodes, and semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOA)

Thermal copper pillar bump

The thermal bump uses the thermoelectric effect, which is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa. Simply put, a thermoelectric device creates a voltage when there is a different temperature on each side, or when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference. This effect can be used to generate electricity, to measure temperature, to cool objects, or to heat them.

Thermal copper pillar bump

For each bump, thermoelectric cooling (TEC) occurs when a current is passed through the bump

Thermal copper pillar bump

Nextreme chose the copper pillar bump as an integration strategy due to its widespread acceptance by Intel, Amkor and other industry leaders as the method for connecting microprocessors and other advanced electronics devices to various surfaces during a process referred to as “flip-chip” packaging

Thermal copper pillar bump

The efficiency of a thermoelectric device is measured by the heat moved (or pumped) divided by the amount of electrical power supplied to move this heat

Thermal copper pillar bump

Use of the thermal bump does not displace system level cooling, which is still needed to move heat out of the system; rather it introduces a fundamentally new methodology for achieving temperature uniformity at the chip and board level

Thermal copper pillar bump – A brief history of solder and flip chip/chip scale packaging

By then the Ball Limiting Metallurgy (BLM) with a high-lead (Pb) solder system and a copper ball had proven to work well

Thermal copper pillar bump – A brief history of solder and flip chip/chip scale packaging

Until the mid-90’s, this type of flip-chip assembly was practiced almost exclusively by IBM and Delco

Thermal copper pillar bump – A brief history of solder and flip chip/chip scale packaging

During this same time, companies began to look at reducing or streamlining their packaging, from the earlier multi-chip-on-ceramic packages that IBM had originally developed C4 to support, to what were referred to as Chip Scale Packages (CSP)

Thermal copper pillar bump – A brief history of solder and flip chip/chip scale packaging

Different solutions were employed including one developed by Focus Interconnect Technology (former APTOS engineers), which used a high aspect ratio plated copper post to provide a larger fixed standoff than was possible for a soft solder collapse joint.

Thermal copper pillar bump – A brief history of solder and flip chip/chip scale packaging

Today, flip chip is a well established technology and collapsed soft solder connections are used in the vast majority of assemblies. Interestingly, the copper post stand-off developed for the CSP market has found a home in high-density interconnects for advanced micro-processors and is used today by IBM for its CPU packaging.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Copper pillar solder bumping

Recent trends in high-density interconnects have led to the use of copper pillar solder bumps (CPB) for CPU and GPU packaging. CPBs are an attractive replacement for traditional solder bumps because they provide a fixed stand-off independent of pitch. This is extremely important as most of the high-end products are underfilled and a smaller standoff may create difficulties in getting the underfill adhesive to flow under the die.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Copper pillar solder bumping

Figure 2 shows an example of a CPB fabricated by Intel and incorporated into their Presler line of microprocessors among others. The cross section shows copper and a copper pillar (approximately 60 um high) electrically connected through an opening (or via) in the chip passivation layer at the top of the picture. At the bottom is another copper trace on the package substrate with solder between the two copper layers.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thin-film thermoelectric technology

Thin films are thin material layers ranging from fractions of a nanometer to several micrometers in thickness. Thin-film thermoelectric materials are grown by conventional semiconductor deposition methods and fabricated using conventional semiconductor micro-fabrication techniques.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thin-film thermoelectric technology

Thin-film thermoelectrics have been demonstrated to provide high heat pumping capacity that far exceeds the capacities provided by traditional bulk pellet TE products. The benefit of thin-films versus bulk materials for thermoelectric manufacturing is expressed in Equation 1. Here the Qmax (maximum heat pumped by a module) is shown to be inversely proportional to the thickness of the film, L.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thin-film thermoelectric technology

As such, TE coolers manufactured with thin-films can easily have 10x – 20x higher Qmax values for a given active area A. This makes thin-film TECs ideally suited for applications involving high heat-flux flows. In addition to the increased heat pumping capability, the use of thin films allows for truly novel implementation of TE devices. Instead of a bulk module that is 1-3 mm in thickness, a thin-film TEC can be fabricated less than 100 um in thickness.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thin-film thermoelectric technology

In its simplest form, the P or N leg of a TE couple (the basic building block of all thin-film TE devices) is a layer of thin-film TE material with a solder layer above and below, providing electrical and thermal functionality.

Thermal copper pillar bump

The thermal bump also enables power generating capabilities within copper pillar bumps for energy recycling applications.

Thermal copper pillar bump

Thermal bumps have been shown to achieve a temperature differential of 60 °C between the top and bottom headers; demonstrated power pumping capabilities exceeding 150 W/cm2; and when subjected to heat, have demonstrated the capability to generate up to 10 mW of power per bump.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thermal copper pillar bump structure

The addition of the TE layer transforms a standard copper pillar bump into a thermal bump

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thermal copper pillar bump structure

Figure 4 shows a schematic of a typical CPB and a thermal bump for comparison. These structures are similar, with both having copper pillars and solder connections. The primary difference between the two is the introduction of either a P- or N-type thermoelectric layer between two solder layers. The solders used with CPBs and thermal bumps can be any one of a number of commonly used solders including, but not limited to, Sn, SnPb eutectic, SnAg or AuSn.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thermal copper pillar bump structure

Figure 5 shows a device equipped with a thermal bump. The thermal flow is shown by the arrows labeled “heat.” Metal traces, which can be several micrometres high, can be stacked or interdigitated to provide highly conductive pathways for collecting heat from the underlying circuit and funneling that heat to the thermal bump.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Thermal copper pillar bump structure

The metal traces shown in the figure for conducting electrical current into the thermal bump may or may not be directly connected to the circuitry of the chip

Thermal copper pillar bump – Applications

Thermal bumps can be used in a number of different ways to provide chip cooling and power generation.

Thermal copper pillar bump – General cooling

Thermal bumps can be evenly distributed across the surface of a chip to provide a uniform cooling effect

Thermal copper pillar bump – Precision temperature control

Since thermal bumps can either cool or heat the chip depending on the current direction, they can be used to provide precision control of temperature for chips that must operate within specific temperature ranges irrespective of ambient conditions. For example, this is a common problem for many optoelectronic components.

Thermal copper pillar bump – Hotspot cooling

In microprocessors, graphics processors and other high-end chips, hotspots can occur as power densities vary significantly across a chip

Thermal copper pillar bump – Power generation

In addition to chip cooling, thermal bumps can also be applied to high heat-flux interconnects to provide a constant, steady source of power for energy scavenging applications. Such a source of power, typically in the mW range, can trickle charge batteries for wireless sensor networks and other battery operated systems.

Thermal copper pillar bump – White Papers, Articles and Application Notes

“Flip Chip Bump Electromigration Reliability A comparison of Cu Pillar, High Pb, SnAg and SnPb Bump Structures”, White Paper

Smelting – Copper and bronze

A mace head found in Can Hasan, Turkey and dated to 5000 BC, once thought to be the oldest evidence, now appears to be hammered native copper.

Smelting – Copper and bronze

By combining copper with tin and/or arsenic in the right proportions one obtains bronze, an alloy which is significantly harder than copper. The first copper/arsenic bronzes date from 4200 BC from Asia Minor. The Inca bronze alloys were also of this type. Arsenic is often an impurity in copper ores, so the discovery could have been made by accident; but eventually arsenic-bearing minerals were intentionally added during smelting.

Smelting – Copper and bronze

Copper/tin bronzes, harder and more durable, were developed around 3200 BC, also in Asia Minor.

Smelting – Copper and bronze

The first such bronzes were probably a lucky accident from tin contamination of copper ores, but by 2000 BC, we know that tin was being mined on purpose for the production of bronze

Smelting – Copper and bronze

Tin and copper also contributed to the establishment of trade networks spanning large areas of Europe and Asia, and had a major effect on the distribution of wealth among individuals and nations.

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire systems are:-

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

Broadband communication is very much possible over fiber optics which means that audio signal, video signal, microwave signal, text and data from computers can be modulated over light carrier wave and demodulated by optical receiver at the other end. It is possible to transmit around 3,000,000 full-duplex voice or 90,000 TV channels over one optical fiber.

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

2. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

Optical fiber cables carry the information over light waves which travel in the fibers due to the properties of the fiber materials, similar to the light traveling in free space

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

3. Low attenuation loss over long distances

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

There are various optical windows in the optical fiber cable at which the attenuation loss is found to be comparatively low and so transmitter and receiver devices are developed and used in these low attenuation region. Due to low attenuation of 0.2dB/km in optical fiber cables, it is possible to achieve long distance communication efficiently over information capacity rate of 1 Tbit/s.

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

4 Electrical Insulator

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

Optical fibers are made and drawn from silica glass which is nonconductor of electricity and so there are no ground loops and leakage of any type of current. Optical fibers are thus laid down along with high voltage cables on the electricity poles due to its electrical insulator behavior.

Optical fiber – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

The use of optical fibers do not require the huge amounts of copper conductor used in conventional cable systems. In recent times, this copper has become a target for widespread metal theft due its inherent value on the scrap market.

Verizon Communications – Copper-wire removal

In areas where Verizon has installed FIOS service, the copper lines are disabled. A customer that has switched to FIOS no longer has the option to switch back to regular copper service. In addition, because the FCC does not require Verizon to allow competitors to use the fiber lines, a customer with FIOS service will have limited options with regards to switching service providers for voice and internet service.

Copper

red-orange metallic luster

Copper

Electron configuration [Ar] 3d10 4s1

Copper

Naming after Cyprus, principal mining place in Roman era (Cyprium)

Copper

Heat of fusion 13.26 kJ·mol?1

Copper

Electronegativity 1.90 (Pauling scale)

Copper

Covalent radius 132±4 pm

Copper

Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (annealed)

Copper

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.

Copper

Decorative art prominently features copper, both by itself and as part of pigments.

Copper

Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustacea copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, which is replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates. The main areas where copper is found in humans are liver, muscle and bone. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides, and wood preservatives.

Copper

For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms.

Copper

As with other metals, if copper is placed against another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.

Copper

The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells is such that it corresponds to orange light

Copper

Copper does not react with water, but it slowly reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming a layer of brown-black copper oxide. In contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air, this oxide layer stops the further, bulk corrosion. A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper constructions, such as the Statue of Liberty. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfides, which react with it to form various copper sulfides.

Copper

63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; they both have a spin of 3/2

Copper

62Cu and 64Cu have significant applications. 64Cu is a radiocontrast agent for X-ray imaging, and complexed with a chelate can be used for treating cancer. 62Cu is used in 62Cu-PTSM that is a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography.

Copper

Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largest described single crystal measuring 4.4×3.2×3.2 cm.

Copper

The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.

Copper

Because of these and other factors, the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate, including the concept of peak copper, analogous to peak oil.

Copper

The price of copper has historically been unstable, and it quintupled from the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped to US$2.40/lb (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded to US$3.50/lb (US$7.71/kg) in April 2007. In February 2009, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year’s highs left copper prices at US$1.51/lb.

Copper

Copper extraction techniques

Copper

The resulting copper matte consisting of Cu2S is then roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides:

Copper

The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating:

Copper

The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of the sulfur as oxide. It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold it contained. This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper:

Copper

According to the International Resource Panel’s Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of Copper in use in society is 35–55 kg

Copper

The process of recycling copper follows roughly the same steps as is used to extract copper, but requires fewer steps. High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots; lower purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.

Copper

Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the most important constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.

Copper

Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals.

Copper

Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric, respectively.

Copper

As for other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements. The principal ones are the oxides, sulfides, and halides. Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, important examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.

Copper

The cuprous halides with chlorine, bromine, and iodine are known, as are the cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide give cuprous iodide and iodine.

Copper

Copper, like all metals, forms coordination complexes with ligands. In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H2O)6]2+. This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex. Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplified equation is:

Copper

Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II):

Copper

Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, which is the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture.

Copper

Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper(II) salts.

Copper

Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.

Copper

Copper(III) is most characteristically found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate, KCuO2, a blue-black solid. The best studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors. Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride is a highly basic anion and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Indeed, both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known, K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6, respectively.

Copper

Some copper proteins form oxo complexes, which also feature copper(III). With di- and tripeptides, purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.

Copper

Complexes of copper(III) are also observed as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds.

Copper

Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC.

Copper

Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin

Copper

The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.

Copper

Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal’s commercial production did not start until the early 20th century.

Copper

With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.

Copper

The Baghdad Battery, with copper cylinders soldered to lead, dates back to 248 BC to AD 226 and resembles a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this was the first battery; the claim has not been verified.

Copper

The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that operated from the 10th century to 1992. It produced two thirds of Europe’s copper demand in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden’s wars during that time. It was referred to as the nation’s treasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.

Copper

Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficient process accounts for 50% of the world’s primary copper production.

Copper

The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 with Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia, played a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil. It never achieved the same influence, particularly because the second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.

Copper

Machining of copper is possible, although it is usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts to get good machinability characteristics.

Copper

Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, solderability, and ease of installation.

Copper

Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity (see Copper interconnect for main article); heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper as a result of its superior heat dissipation capacity to aluminium. Electromagnets, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper, as do wave guides for microwave radiation.

Copper

Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives, are enabling general-purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency standards.

Copper

Some of copper’s other important benefits as an architectural material include its low thermal movement, light weight, lightning protection, and its recyclability.

Copper

Architectural copper and its alloys can also be ‘finished’ to embark a particular look, feel, and/or color

Copper

Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can be welded; the best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.

Copper

Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become important netting materials in the aquaculture industry because of the fact that they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions and have strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments.

Copper

Numerous antimicrobial efficacy studies have been conducted in the past 10 years regarding copper’s efficacy to destroy a wide range of bacteria, as well as influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi.

Copper

Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 2011–2014.

Copper

Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion of structures during restoration of damage due to dry rot. Together with zinc, copper wires may be placed over non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss. Textile fibers use copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics, as do ceramic glazes, stained glass and musical instruments. Electroplating commonly uses copper as a base for other metals such as nickel.

Copper

Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver, used in a museum materials testing procedure called the Oddy test. In this procedure, copper is used to detect chlorides, oxides, and sulfur compounds.

Copper

Copper is commonly used in jewelry, and folklore says that copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms. Copper is the principal alloying metal in sterling silver and gold alloys. It may also be used on its own, or as a constituent of brass, bronze, gilding metal and many other base metal alloys.

Copper

Copper is used as the printing plate in etching, engraving and other forms of intaglio (printmaking) printmaking.

Copper

Copper oxide and carbonate is used in glassmaking and in ceramic glazes to impart green and brown colors.

Copper

The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in earth’s atmosphere

Copper

Copper is also a component of other proteins associated with the processing of oxygen. In cytochrome c oxidase, which is required for aerobic respiration, copper and iron cooperate in the reduction of oxygen. Copper is also found in many superoxide dismutases, proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides, by converting it (by disproportionation) to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide:

Copper

Several copper proteins, such as the “blue copper proteins”, do not interact directly with substrates, hence they are not enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer.

Copper

about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body), and the body is able to excrete some excess copper, if needed, via bile, which carries some copper out of the liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine.

Copper

Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia, bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, hyperthyroidism, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism. Conversely, Wilson’s disease causes an accumulation of copper in body tissues.

Copper

Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The “cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets” has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but the results have not been confirmed by replication.

Copper

However, higher concentrations of copper (100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growth rates, and carcass dressing percentages.

Copper

Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson’s disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes.

Google privacy – Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) compliance

Google has been criticized by some for the way it implements support for the requirements of the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) because of its biased terms of service on YouTube and its heavy handed ways of enforcing the law. According to Google’s Privacy Policy, children under 13 aren’t allowed to use any Google services, including Gmail.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory – Coppedge v Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Conversely, JPL, through the Caltech lawyers representing the laboratory, allege that Coppedge’s termination was simply due to budget cuts and his demotion from team lead was because of harassment complaints and from on-going conflicts with his co-workers

Copper Mountain Solar Facility

The ‘Copper Mountain Solar Facility’ is a 150 MWp[http://www.semprausgp.com/energy-solutions/solar-cms1.html Copper Mountain Solar I] solar photovoltaic power plant in Boulder City, Nevada. Sempra Energy|Sempra Generation announced on December1, 2010 that it had finished the project and the facility was generating electricity. When the facility entered service, it was the largest photovoltaic plant in the U.S. at 58 MW.

Copper Mountain Solar Facility

The expected output of 100 gigawatt hour|GW·h/year from Copper Mountain Solar Facility has been sold to Pacific Gas Electric under a 20-year power purchase agreement (PPA).

Copper Mountain Solar Facility – History

Sempra Energy|Sempra Generation built the plant from January 2010 to December1, 2010, at a cost of about $141million., although it appears this is just for 48 MW expansion

Copper Mountain Solar Facility – History

At its construction peak more than 350workers were installing the 775,000First Solar panels on the site.[http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2010/12/americas-largest-pv-power-plant-is-now-live?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-December8-2010 America’s Largest PV Power Plant Is Now Live] (December 6, 2010), Renewable Energy World.

Copper Mountain Solar Facility – History

On August 4, 2011, Sempra announced a plan to expand the facility by 92 MW to be online in January 2013 and another 58 MW to be added by 2015.[http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/04/us-sempra-pacificgas-idUSTRE77367R20110804 Sempra to expand Copper Mountain solar plant], Reuters, Aug 4, 201

Copper Mountain Solar Facility – Units

*Solar 2 is the under construction 150 MW phase 2, of which 92 MW is operational.[http://www.semprausgp.com/energy-solutions/solar-cms2.html Copper Mountain Solar 2]

Antibiotic – Antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces

As a public hygienic measure in addition to regular cleaning, Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces|antimicrobial copper alloys are being installed in healthcare facilities and in a subway transit system.construpages.com.ve/nl/noticia_nl.php?id_noticia=3032language=en

Copper oxide

Copper oxide is a compound from the two elements copper and oxygen.

Copper oxide

*Copper(I) oxide (cuprous oxide, Cu2O), a red powder;

Copper oxide

*Copper(II) oxide (cupric oxide, CuO), a black powder

Plant nutrition – Copper

Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis. Involved in many enzyme processes. Necessary for proper photosythesis. Involved in the manufacture of lignin (cell walls). Involved in grain production. It is also hard to find in some conditions.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells

Copper indium gallium selenide (CuIn1-xGaxSe2 or CIGS) is a direct bandgap semiconductor useful for the manufacture of solar cells. The CIGS absorber is deposited on a glass or plastic backing, along with electrodes on the front and back to collect current. Because the material has a high absorption coefficient and strongly absorbs sunlight, a much thinner film is required than of other semiconductor materials. Devices made with CIGS belong to the thin-film category of photovoltaics (PV).

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells

CIGS is one of three mainstream thin-film PV technologies, the other two being Cadmium telluride photovoltaics|cadmium telluride and amorphous silicon

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells

The market for thin-film PV grew at a 60% annual rate from 2002 to 2007 and is still growing rapidly.[http://www.sustainableenergyworld.eu/energy/thin-film-wins-pv-market-share-three-new-plants-in-germany-total-almost-50-mw-289.html Thin-Film wins PV market share: Three New Plants in Germany Total Almost 50 MW]

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Properties

The bandgap varies continuously with x from about 1.0 eV (for copper indium selenide) to about 1.7 eV (for copper gallium selenide).

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Properties

CIGS has an exceptionally high absorption coefficient of more than 105/cm for 1.5 eV and higher energy photons. CIGS solar cells with efficiencies around 20% have been claimed by both the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and the Zentrum für Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff Forschung (ZSW), which is the record to date for any thin film solar cell.[http://www.zsw-bw.de/index.php?id=109L=1 ZSW: Press Releases]. Zsw-bw.de. Retrieved on 2011-09-13.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS photovoltaic cells

The most common device structure for CIGS solar cells is shown in Figure 1. Soda lime glass is commonly used as a substrate, because it contains Na, which has been shown to yield a substantial open-circuit voltage increase, notably through surface and grain boundary defects passivation.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS photovoltaic cells

However, many companies are also looking at lighter and more flexible substrates such as polyimide or metal foils

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS photovoltaic cells

The materials based on CuInSe2 that are of interest for photovoltaic applications include several elements from groups I, III and VI in the periodic table

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Conversion efficiency

CIGS is mainly used in the form of polycrystalline thin films

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Conversion efficiency

These efficiencies are different from module conversion efficiencies

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Conversion efficiency

Higher efficiencies (around 30%) can be obtained by using optics to concentrated photovoltaics|concentrate the incident light. The use of gallium increases the optical band gap of the CIGS layer as compared to pure CIS, thus increasing the open-circuit voltage. In another point of view, gallium is added to replace as much indium as possible due to gallium’s relative availability to indium.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Deposition

CIGS films can be manufactured by several different methods:

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Deposition

*The most common vacuum-based process is to co-evaporate or co-sputter copper, gallium, and indium onto a substrate at room temperature, then anneal the resulting film with a selenide vapor to form the final CIGS structure. An alternative process is to co-evaporate copper, gallium, indium and selenium onto a heated substrate.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Deposition

*A non-vacuum-based alternative process deposits nanoparticles of the precursor (chemistry)|precursor materials on the Substrate (materials science)|substrate and then sinters them in situ. Electroplating is another low cost alternative to apply the CIGS layer.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Deposition

With record CIGS efficiency at just below 20% for several years, new trends of CIGS research has been focused on lower-cost deposition methods as an alternative to expensive vacuum processes. This new research progressed quickly and efficiencies of 10%–15% have been achieved by many teams.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS and silicon

Unlike the silicon cells based on a homojunction, the structure of CIGS cells is a more complex heterojunction system

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS and silicon

A direct bandgap material, CIGS has very strong light absorption and only 1–2 micrometers of CIGS is enough to absorb most of the sunlight. A much greater thickness of crystalline silicon is required for the same absorption.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS and silicon

The active layer (CIGS) can be deposited in a polycrystalline form directly onto molybdenum coating|coated glass sheets or steel bands. This uses less energy than growing large crystals, which is a necessary step in the manufacture of crystalline silicon solar cells. Also unlike crystalline silicon, these substrates can be flexible electronics|flexible.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – CIGS and other thin films

CIGS can be used to make thin film solar cells (TFSC)

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Structure of a CIGS thin-film solar cell

The basic structure of a Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cell is depicted in the image of Figure 2 to the right

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Structure of a CIGS thin-film solar cell

Production of solar module|modules involves the depositon layer being cut into a series of parallel connected strips. A further transparent protective cover is applied to the module. This sandwich construction is then sealed against the ingress of moisture. Some method of physical support is required to prevent fracture of this fragile structure.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – General properties of high performance CIGS absorbers

The second property is an overall Copper|Cu deficiency

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – General properties of high performance CIGS absorbers

Sodium (Na) incorporation is also necessary for optimal performance

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – General properties of high performance CIGS absorbers

Alloying CIS (CuInSe2) with CGS (CuGaSe2) increases in the bandgap. To reach the ideal bandgap for a single junction solar cell, 1.5 eV, a Ga/(In+Ga) ratio of roughly 0.7 would be optimal. However, at ratios above ~0.3 device performance drops off. Industry currently targets the 0.3 Ga/(In+Ga) ratio, resulting in bandgaps between 1.1 and 1.2 eV. The decreasing performance has been postulated to be a result of CGS not forming the ODC, which is necessary for a good interface with CdS.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – General properties of high performance CIGS absorbers

The highest efficiency devices show a high degree of texturing, or preferred crystallographic orientation

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Precursor deposition and post processing

Perhaps the most common method used to create CIGS films for commercial use is deposition of precursor materials – always including Cu, In, and Ga, and sometimes including Se – onto a substrate and processing these films at high temperatures under a proper atmosphere

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – General selenization concerns

The Se supply and selenization environment is extremely important in determining the properties and quality of the film produced from precursor layers

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – General selenization concerns

Differences exist between films formed using different Se sources

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Sputtering of metallic layers followed by selenization

In this method of forming CIGS absorbers, a metal film of Cu, In, and Ga is sputtered at or near room temperature and reacted in a Se atmosphere at high temperature. This process has higher throughput than coevaporation and compositional uniformity can be more easily achieved.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Sputtering of metallic layers followed by selenization

Sputtering a stacked multilayer of metal – for example a Cu/In/Ga/Cu/In/Ga..

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Sputtering of metallic layers followed by selenization

Companies currently using similar processes include Showa Shell, Saint-Gobain#Innovative Materials|Avancis (now an affiliate of Saint-Gobain Group), Miasolé, Honda Soltec, and Energy Photovoltaics (EPV)

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Sputtering of metallic layers followed by selenization

Miasole has had great success in procuring venture capital funds for its process and scale up. However, little is known about their sputtering/selenization process beyond their stated efficiency of 9 to 10% for modules.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Sputtering of metallic layers followed by selenization

EPV uses a hybrid between coevaporation and sputtering in which In and Ga are evaporated in a Se atmosphere. This is followed by Cu sputtering and a selenization step. Finally, In and Ga are again evaporated in the presence of Se. Based on Hall measurements, these films have a low carrier concentration and high mobility compared to other devices. EPV films have also been shown to have a low defect concentration.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Chalcogenization of particulate precursor layers

In this method, metal or metal-oxide nanoparticles are used as the precursors for CIGS growth. These nanoparticles are generally suspended in a water based solution and then applied to large areas by various methods, with printing the most common. The film is then dehydrated and, if the precursors are metal-oxides, reduced in a H2/N2 atmosphere. Following dehydration, the remaining porous film is sintered and selenized at temperatures greater than 400 °C.

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Chalcogenization of particulate precursor layers

Nanosolar and International Solar Electric Technology (ISET) are attempting to scale up this process

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Chalcogenization of particulate precursor layers

Nanosolar has reported a cell (not module) efficiency of 14%, however this has not been verified by any national laboratory testing, nor are they allowing any onsite inspections of their facilities to verify this and other claims made in the past

Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells – Commercial production

Despite CIGS having the advantage over CdTe, which is negatively affected by the issues of both Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal cadmium usage and rare-earth Telluride (chemistry)|telluride availability, the development of the CIGS lags behind CdTe commercially

Rio Tinto Group – Copper and byproducts: Rio Tinto Copper

Together, Rio Tinto’s share of copper production at its mines totalled nearly 700,000 tonnes, making the company the fourth-largest copper producer in the world.

Rio Tinto Group – Copper and byproducts: Rio Tinto Copper

Rio Tinto Copper continues to seek new opportunities for expansion, with major exploration activities at the Resolution Copper project in the United States, La Granja mine|La Granja Mine in Peru, and Oyu Tolgoi mine|Oyu Tolgoi in Mongolia. In addition, the company is seeking to become a major producer of nickel, with exploration projects currently underway in the United States and Indonesia.

Rio Tinto Group – Copper and byproducts: Rio Tinto Copper

Although not the primary focus of Rio Tinto Copper’s operations, several economically valuable byproducts are produced during the refining of copper ore into purified copper. Gold, silver, molybdenum, and sulphuric acid are all removed from copper ore during processing. Due to the scale of Rio Tinto’s copper mining and processing facilities, the company is also a leading producer of these materials, which drive substantial revenues to the company.

Rio Tinto Group – Copper and byproducts: Rio Tinto Copper

Sales of copper generated 8% of the company’s 2008 revenues, and copper and byproduct operations accounted for 16% of underlying earnings.

Rio Tinto Group – Copper and byproducts: Rio Tinto Copper

Rio Tinto will exclusively provide the metal to produce the 4,700 gold, silver and bronze medals at the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games.This is the second time Rio Tinto will be supplying the metal for Olympic medals, having previously done so for the Salt Lake City 2002 Winter Olympics.

Rio Tinto Group – Copper and byproducts: Rio Tinto Copper

Rio Tinto also owns the naming rights to Rio Tinto Stadium located in nearby Sandy, Utah, and the home of the Major League Soccer team, Real Salt Lake.

Roller printing on textiles – Engraved copperplate printing

The printing of textiles from engraving|engraved intaglio printing|copperplates was first practiced by Bell in 1770. It was entirely obsolete, as an industry, in England, by the end of the 19th century.

Roller printing on textiles – Engraved copperplate printing

The presses first used were of the ordinary letterpress type, the engraved plate being fixed in the place of the type. In later improvements the well-known cylinder press was employed; the plate was inked mechanically and cleaned off by passing under a sharp blade of steel; and the cloth, instead of being laid on the plate, was passed round the pressure cylinder. The plate was raised into frictional contact with the cylinder and in passing under it transferred its ink to the cloth.

Roller printing on textiles – Engraved copperplate printing

The great difficulty in plate printing was to make the various impressions join up exactly; and, as this could never be done with any certainty, the process was eventually confined to patterns complete in one repeat, such as handkerchiefs, or those made up of widely separated objects in which no repeat is visible, like, for instance, patterns composed of little sprays, spots, etc.

Roller printing on textiles – Engraving of copper rollers

The engraving of copper rollers is one of the most important branches of textile printing and on its perfection of execution depends, in great measure, the ultimate success of the designs. Roughly speaking, the operation of engraving is performed by three different methods, viz. (I) By hand with a graver which cuts the metal away; (2) by etching, in which the pattern is dissolved out in nitric acid; and (3) by machine, in which the pattern is simply indented.

Roller printing on textiles – Engraving of copper rollers

(1) Engraving by hand is the oldest and most obvious method of engraving, but is the least used at the present time on account of its slowness

Roller printing on textiles – Engraving of copper rollers

The reduction of the design and its transfer to a varnished copper roller are both effected at one and the same operation in the pantograph machine

Roller printing on textiles – Engraving of copper rollers

(3) In machine engraving the pattern is impressed in the roller by a small cylindrical mill on which the pattern is in relief

Roller printing on textiles – Engraving of copper rollers

The copper roller must in like manner have a circumference equal to an exact multiple of that of the mill, so that the pattern will join up perfectly without the slightest break in line.

Roller printing on textiles – Engraving of copper rollers

The mill is placed in contact with one end of the copper roller, and being mounted on a lever support as much pressure as required can be put upon it by adding weights

Textile printing – Engraved copperplate printing

The printing of textiles from engraved copperplates was first practiced in the United Kingdom by Thomas Bell (printer)|Thomas Bell in 1770.

10 Gigabit Ethernet – Copper

10G Ethernet can also run over twin-axial cabling, twisted pair cabling, and backplanes.

National Broadband Network – Copper network decommissioning

An agreement with Telstra requires the copper telephone network to be decommissioned in an area 18 months after optic fibre is ready for service. Also new connections must be made to the optic fibre network and not the copper network. In some cases, premises have been left without service due to lengthy delays in establishing NBN connections. Telstra advises the use of the mobile network for phone and internet in these cases.

National Broadband Network – Telstra Copper Upgrade proposal 2005

On Telstra, the owner of the national copper network, announced a plan to upgrade its ageing networks, including a rollout of a Fiber to the x|fibre to the node (FTTN) network

Pence – First use of copper

Pennies were made of copper in the United States of America as early as 1793, the first pennies in America (Chain Cent).

Pence – First use of copper

The penny that was brought to the Cape Colony (in what is now South Africa) was a large coin — 36mm in diameter, 3.3mm thick and — and the twopence was correspondingly larger at 41mm in diameter, 5mm thick and

Pence – First use of copper

All together the Mint produced over £600,000 worth of official English copper coinage, as well as separate copper coins for Ireland and the Isle of Man.

Pence – First use of copper

The new British coins (which were introduced in England in 1816), among them being the shilling, six-pence of silver, the penny, half-penny, and quarter-penny in copper, were introduced to the Cape

Verizon – Copper-wire removal

In areas where Verizon has installed FIOS service, the copper lines are disabled. A customer that has switched to FIOS no longer has the option to switch back to regular copper service. In addition, because the FCC does not require Verizon to allow competitors to use the fiber lines, a customer with FIOS service will have limited options with regards to switching service providers for voice and internet service.

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

Originally conceived as an optics| optical technology, Intel switched to electrical connections to reduce costs and to supply up to 10W of power to connected devices.

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

In 2009, Intel officials said the company was working on bundling the optical fiber with copper wire so Light Peak can be used to power devices plugged into the PC

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

In January 2011, Intel’s David Perlmutter told Computerworld that initial Thunderbolt implementations would be based on copper wires. The copper came out very good, surprisingly better than what we thought, he said. A major advantage of copper is the ability to carry power. The final Thunderbolt standard specifies 10WDC on every port. See comparison section below.

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

Intel and industry partners are still developing optical Thunderbolt hardware and cables

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

The first such optical Thunderbolt cable was introduced by Sumitomo Electric Industries in January 2013. It is available in lengths of , , and . However, these cable only retail almost exclusively in Japan, and the price is 20–30× higher than copper Thunderbolt cables.

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

German company DeLock have also released optical Thunderbolt cables in lengths of , , and sometime in 2013, similarly priced to the Sumitomi ones, and mainly retailing in Germany only.

Thunderbolt (interface) – Copper vs. optical

A cable was the first to be released, selling at around US dollar|US$300, they make the comparable per-meter price to be around the same to that of standard copper non-optical Thunderbolt cables, with the company planning on eventually releasing six sizes altogether, in lengths of , , , , , and (the optical USB 3.0 cables will have a maximum length of ).

Disinfection – Copper alloy surfaces

(for a comprehensive list of products, see: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approved products)

Copper in renewable energy

The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020.The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper, Bloomsbury Minerals Economics Ltd., July 6, 2010; Independent research study available at Leonardo Energy – Ask an Expert; www.leonardo-energy.org/ask-expert Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants, the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce carbon dioxide emissions|CO2 emissions

Copper in renewable energy

By using copper instead of other lower electrical energy-efficient metal conductors, less electricity needs to be generated to satisfy a given power demand.

Copper in renewable energy

This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems.

Copper in renewable energy – Overview of copper usage in renewable energy generation

While conventional power requires approximately 1 tonne of copper per installed megawatt (MW), renewable technologies such as wind and solar require four times more copper per installed MW.Maximization of use of copper in photovoltaics

Copper in renewable energy – Overview of copper usage in renewable energy generation

The total amount of copper used in renewable?based and distributed electricity generation in 2011 was estimated to be 272 kilotonnes (kt). Cumulative copper use through 2011 was estimated to be 1,071 kt.

Copper in renewable energy – Overview of copper usage in renewable energy generation

Copper conductors are used in major electrical renewable energy components, such as turbines, electric generator|generators, electric transformer|transformers, inverters, cables, power electronics, and information cable. Copper usage is approximately the same in turbines/generators, transformers/inverters, and cables. Much less copper is used in power electronics.

Copper in renewable energy – Overview of copper usage in renewable energy generation

Solar thermal heating|Solar thermal heating and cooling energy systems rely on copper for their thermal energy efficiency benefits. Copper is also used as a special corrosion resistance|corrosion-resistant material in renewable energy systems in wet, humidity|humid, and saline water|saline corrosive environments.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar photovoltaic power generation

The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules (EJ) of energy to the Earth. Various technologies are being developed to exploit this huge energy source.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar photovoltaic power generation

Solar photovoltaic device|photovoltaics (PV) is an important but still evolving technology that harnesses the Sun’s power to generate electricity. As sunlight hits a photovoltaic cell, it frees and stirs up electrons, which then collect on conductive plates to create electricity.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar photovoltaic power generation

Of the 20,000 TWh of power consumed globally in a single year,World Energy Outlook 2012, International Energy Agency; www.worldenergyoutlook.org/ approximately 90 TWh are generated from solar PV systems. While this is only a very small percentage of global energy consumption (0.6% of total installed electricity generating capacity worldwide), it is nevertheless sufficient to power the needs of more than 10 million people living at the standard of living in a developed country.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar photovoltaic power generation

Various overlapping statistics regarding the growth of solar PVs have been cited

Copper in renewable energy – Solar photovoltaic power generation

Household PV systems are smaller and losses in transmission and distribution are lower than in large-scaled PV power stations. Households are able to generate their own electricity and use the electrical grid for support and reliability.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar photovoltaic power generation

For these reasons, policy initiatives are taking place to enhance the deployment of solar photovoltaic energy installations

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in photovoltaic power systems

Copper is used in: 1) small wires that interconnect photovoltaic modules; 2) earthing grids in electrode earth pegs, horizontal plates, naked cables, and wires; 3) Direct current|DC cables that connect photovoltaic modules to inverters; 4) low-voltage Alternating current|AC cables that connect inverters to metering systems and protection cabinets; 5) high-voltage AC cables; 6) communication cables; 7) inverters/power electronics; 8) ribbons; and 9) transformer windings.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in photovoltaic power systems

Copper used in photovoltaic systems in 2011 was estimated to be 150 kt. Cumulative copper usage in photovoltaic systems through 2011 was estimated to be 350 kt.

Copper in renewable energy – Photovoltaic system configurations

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are highly scalable, ranging from the small rooftop residential system to large solar PV parks with 50 MW or more capacity. Residential and community?based systems generally range in capacity from 10kW to 1 MW.

Copper in renewable energy – Photovoltaic system configurations

PV cells are grouped together in photovoltaic module|modules. These modules are connected into photovoltaic arrays. In systems connected to the grid, arrays can form sub?fields from which electricity is collected and transported towards the grid connection.

Copper in renewable energy – Photovoltaic system configurations

Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields (field cable). Whether a system is connected to the grid or not, electricity collected from the PV cells needs to be converted from DC to AC and stepped up in voltage. This is done by inverters which contain copper windings, as well as with copper-containing power electronics.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

Materials used for photovoltaic solar cells include mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulfide. They typically convert 15% of incident sunlight into electricity, allowing the generation of 100 – 150 kWh per square meter of panel per year.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

Renewable Energy World International; July 2, 2012; www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/07/pv-technology-swapping-silver-for-copper

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

The second?generation PV technology is thin?film cells. These were lower cost but also lower in efficiency (6%?10%) than first generation silicon PV technology. Costs per watt were also much lower. Thin film cell options currently under development include copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), amorphous silicon (aSi) and micromorphous silicon (mSi).

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

CIGS, which is actually copper (indium-gallium) diselenide, or Cu(InGa)Se2, differs from silicon in that it is a heterojunction semiconductor

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

A photovoltaic cell manufacturing process has been developed that makes it possible to print CIGS semi-conductors. This technology has the potential to reduce the price per solar watt delivered.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

While copper is one of the components in CIGS solar cells, the copper content of the cell is actually small: about 50kg of copper per MW of capacity.Global Solar; www.globalsolar.com, as cited in The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper, Bloomsbury Minerals Economics Ltd., July 6, 2010; page 59. Independent research study available at Leonardo Energy – Ask an Expert; www.leonardo-energy.org/ask-expert

Copper in renewable energy – Solar cells

Synthesis of copper (I) sulfide nanocrystals for photovoltaic application; Nanotech 2008 Conference Program Abstract; www.nsti.org/Nanotech2008/showabstract.html?absno=70355

Copper in renewable energy – Cables

Typical diameters of copper cables used are 4?6mm2 for module cable, 6?10mm2 for array cable, and 30?50mm2 for field cable.

Copper in renewable energy – Energy efficiency and system design considerations

This linkage of renewable energy with energy efficiency relies in part on the electrical energy efficiency benefits of copper.

Copper in renewable energy – Energy efficiency and system design considerations

Thicker cables reduce Copper loss|IR2 energy losses due to lower cable warming

Copper in renewable energy – Energy efficiency and system design considerations

Depending upon circumstances, some conductors in PV systems can be specified with either copper or aluminum. As with other electrical conducting systems, there are advantages to each (see: Copper wire and cable). Copper is the preferred material when high electrical conductivity characteristics and flexibility of the cable are of paramount importance. Also, copper is more suitable for small roof facilities, in smaller cable trays, and when ducting in steel or plastic pipes.

Copper in renewable energy – Energy efficiency and system design considerations

Cable ducting is not needed in smaller power facilities where copper cables are less than 25mm2. Without duct work, installation costs are lower with copper than with aluminum.

Copper in renewable energy – Energy efficiency and system design considerations

Data communications networks rely on copper, optical fiber, and/or radio frequency|radio links. Each material has its advantages and disadvantages. Copper is more reliable than radio links. Signal attenuation with copper wires and cables can be resolved with signal amplifiers.

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

The Sun’s solar energy can also be harnessed for its heat. When the Sun’s energy heats a Coolant|fluid in a closed system, its pressure and temperature rise. When introduced to a turbine, the fluid expands, turning the turbine and producing electrical power.

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

Concentrating solar power (CSP), also known as solar thermal electricity (STE), uses arrays of mirrors that concentrate the sun’s rays to temperatures between 4000C -10000C. Electrical power is produced when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an electrical power generator.

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

CSP facilities can produce large-scale power and hold much promise in areas with plenty of sunshine and clear skies. Poised to make Sun-powered grids a reality,Hutchinson, Alex, 2008. Solar thermal power may make sun-powered grid a reality; Popular Mechanics; November 1, 2008 CSP is currently capable of providing power and dispatchability on a scale similar to that of fossil fuel or nuclear electrical power plants.

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

The electrical output of CSP facilities match shifting daily demand for electricity in places where air conditioning systems are spreading. When backed by thermal storage facilities and combustible fuel, CSP offers utilities electricity that can be dispatched when required, enabling it to be used for base, shoulder and peak loads.Technology Roadmap: Concentrating Solar Power; IEA, www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/csp_roadmap.pdf

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

Industry groups have estimated that the technology could generate a quarter of the world’s electricity needs by 2050.Jha, Alok, 2009

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

In 2010, Spain, the world leader of CSP technology, was constructing or planning to build some 50 large CSP plants

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

Unlike wind energy, photovoltaics, and most distributed power, the main advantage of CSP is its thermal storage capabilityDessau, Kathy Li 2010

Copper in renewable energy – Concentrating solar thermal power

CSP systems are sometimes combined with fossil fueled steam turbine generation, but interest is growing in pure CSP technology. Further information on concentrating solar power is available from the Global Solar Thermal Energy Council.Global Solar Thermal Energy Council, www.solarthermalworld.com

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in concentrating solar thermal power facilities

A CSP system consists of: 1) a concentrator or collector containing mirrors that reflect solar radiation and deliver it to the receiver; 2) a receiver that absorbs concentrated sunlight and transfers heat energy to a working fluid (usually a mineral oil, or more rarely, molten salts, metals, steam or air); 3) a transport and storage system that passes the fluid from the receiver to the power conversion system; and 4) a steam turbine that converts thermal power to electricity on demand.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in concentrating solar thermal power facilities

Copper is used in field power Copper wire and cable|cables, grounding networks, and Copper in energy efficient motors|motors for tracking and pumping fluids, as well as in the main generator and high voltage transformers. Typically, there is about 200 tonnes copper for a 50 MW power plant.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in concentrating solar thermal power facilities

It has been estimated that copper usage in concentrated solar thermal power plants was 2 kt in 2011. Cumulative copper usage in these plants through 2011 was estimated to be 7 kt.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in concentrating solar thermal power facilities

There are four main types of CSP technologies, each containing a different amount of copper: parabolic trough plants, tower plants, distributed linear absorber systems including linear Fresnel plants, and dish Stirling plants. The use of copper in these plants is described here.

Copper in renewable energy – Parabolic trough plants

Parabolic trough plants are the most common CSP technology, representing about 94% of power installed in Spain

Copper in renewable energy – Parabolic trough plants

A 100 MW plant will have 30% less relative copper content per MW in the solar field and 10% less in electronic equipment.

Copper in renewable energy – Parabolic trough plants

Mirrors use a small amount of copper to provide galvanic corrosion protection to the reflective silver layer

Copper in renewable energy – Tower plants

Solar power tower|Tower plants, also called central tower power plants, may become the preferred CSP technology in the future. They collect solar energy concentrated by the heliostat field in a central receiver mounted at the top of the tower. Each heliostat tracks the Sun along two axes (azimuth and elevation). Therefore, two motors per unit are required.

Copper in renewable energy – Tower plants

Copper is required in the heliostat field (power cables, signal, earthing, motors), receiver (trace heating, signal cables), storage system (circulating pumps, cabling to consumption points), electricity generation (alternator, transformer), steam cycle (water pumps, condenser fans), cabling to consumption points, control signal and sensors, and motors.

Copper in renewable energy – Tower plants

A 100 MW plant will have somewhat less copper per MW in process equipment.

Copper in renewable energy – Linear Fresnel plants

Compact linear Fresnel reflector|Linear Fresnel plants use linear reflectors to concentrate the Sun’s rays in an absorber tube similar to parabolic trough plants. Since the concentration factor is less than in parabolic trough plants, the temperature of the heat transfer fluid is lower. This is why most plants use saturated steam as the working fluid in both the solar field and the turbine.

Copper in renewable energy – Linear Fresnel plants

Another 57,300kg of copper is in equipment (transformers, generators, motors, mirrors, pumps, fans).

Copper in renewable energy – Dish Stirling plants

These plants are an emerging technology that has potential as a solution for decentralized applications. The technology does not require water for cooling in the conversion cycle. These plants are non-dispatchable. Energy production ceases when clouds pass overhead. Research is being conducted on advanced storage and hybridization systems.

Copper in renewable energy – Dish Stirling plants

The largest dish Sterling installation has a total power of 1.5 MW. Relatively more copper is needed in the solar field than other CSP technologies because electricity is actually generated there. Based on existing 1.5 MW plants, the copper content is 4 tonnes/MW, or, in other terms, 2.2 tonnes of copper/GWh/year. A 1.5 MW power plant has some 6,060kg of copper in cables, induction generators, drives, field and grid transformers, earthing and lightning protection.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

Solar water heating|Solar water heaters can be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for homes. They can be used in any climate. The fuel they use, sunshine, is free.Solar water heaters; Energy Savers; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy; U.S. Department of Energy; www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12850/

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

Solar hot water collectors are used by more than 200 million households as well as many public and commercial buildings worldwide. The total installed capacity of solar thermal heating and cooling units in 2010 was 185 GW-thermal.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

Solar heating capacity increased by an estimated 27% in 2011 to reach approximately 232 GWth, excluding unglazed swimming pool heating. Most solar thermal is used for water heating, but solar space heating and cooling are gaining ground, particularly in Europe.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

There are two types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive, which don’t. Passive solar techniques do not require working electrical or mechanical elements. They include the selection of materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

This material can be copper off course but also aluminum or PEX-AL-PEX.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

Three types of solar thermal collectors are used for residential applications: flat plate collectors,Solar thermal collector: Flat plate collectors; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_collector#Flat_plate_collectors integral collector-storage, and evacuated-tube solar collectors.Solar thermal collector: Evacuated tube collectors; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_collector#Evacuated_tube_collectors They can be direct circulation (i.e., heats water and brings it directly to the home for use) or indirect circulation (i.e., pumps heat a transfer fluid through a heat exchanger, which then heats water that flows into the home) systems.

Copper in renewable energy – Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

It is a sealed hollow copper tube that contains a small amount of proprietary liquid, which under low pressure boils at a very low temperature

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

In a wind turbine, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy to drive a Electric generator|generator, which in turn generates electricity.Wind turbine; Wikipedia; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Wind energy is one of the fastest growing energy technologies. Wind power capacity increased from a very small base of around 0.6 GW in 1996 to around 160 GW in 2009.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

It is anticipated that the growth of wind energy will continue to rise dramatically.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Moderate estimates for global capacity by 2020 are 711 GW.Wind Energy – The Facts, European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), as cited in The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper, Bloomsbury Minerals Economics Ltd., July 6, 2010

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Some 50 countries operated wind power facilities in 2010.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

But higher wind speeds are available offshore compared to land.Offshore Wind Power 2010 BTM Consult, Madsen Krogsgaard; 22 November 2010.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

The offshore wind power market is expanding with the use of larger turbines and installations farther from shore.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Offshore installation, as yet, is a comparatively small market, probably accounting for little more than 10% of installation globally.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

The location of new wind farms increasingly will be offshore, especially in Europe.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Offshore wind farms are normally much larger, often with over 100 turbines with ratings up to 3 MW and above per turbine.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

The harsh environment means that the individual components need to be more rugged and corrosion protected than their onshore components.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Increasingly long connections to shore with subsea MV and HV cables are required at this time.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Large wind farm installations linked to the electrical grid are at one end of the spectrum.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

At the other end of the spectrum are small individual turbines that provide electricity to individual premises or electricity-using installations.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

These are often in rural and grid?isolated sites.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

The basic components of a wind power system consist of a tower with rotating blades containing an electricity generator and a transformer to step up voltage for electricity transmission to a substation on the grid.

Copper in renewable energy – Wind

Cabling and electronics are also important components.Distributed generation and renewables – wind power; Power Quality and Utilisation Guide; Leonardo Energy; www.copperinfo.co.uk/power-quality/downloads/pqug/832-wind-power.pdf

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in wind power generation

Copper truly is the green metal; Granite’s Edge – Investment insight from Granite Investment Advisors; www.granitesedge.com/2011/02/01/copper-truly-is-the-green-metal

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in wind power generation

It has been estimated that the amount of copper used for wind energy systems in 2011 was 120 kt. The cumulative amount of copper installed through 2011 was estimated to be 714 kt.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in wind power generation

Copper may also be used in the nacelle (the housing of the wind turbine that rests on the tower containing all the main components), auxiliary motors (motors used to rotate the nacelle as well as control the angle of the rotor blades), cooling circuits (cooling configuration for the entire drive train), and power electronics (which enable the wind turbine systems to perform like a power plant).Copper content assessment of wind turbines, Final Report V01, by Frost Sullivan

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in wind power generation

In wind power systems, this resistance can be reduced with thicker copper wireCopper wire and cable; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_wire_and_cable and with a cooling system for the generator, if required.Meyers, C

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

The average capacity is forecasted to increase to 2.5 MW in 2015 and to 3 MW in 2020.Copper content assessment of wind turbines, Final Report V01, by Frost Sullivan

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

Generators in Wind turbine design|direct drive wind turbines contain more copper, as the generator itself is bigger due to the absence of a gearbox.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

A generator in a direct drive configuration could be 3.5- to 6-times heavier than in a geared configuration, depending on the type of generator.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

Five different types of generator technologies are used in wind generation: 1) double-fed asynchronous generators (DFAG), 2) Induction generator|conventional asynchronous generators (CAG), 3) Alternator|conventional synchronous generators (CSG), 4) permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG), and 5) Superconducting electric machine|high-temperature superconductor generators (HTSG). The amount of copper in each of these generator types is summarized here.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

Direct drive configurations of the synchronous type machines contain the most amount of copper. Conventional synchronous generators (CSG) direct drive machines have the highest per-unit copper content. The share of CSGs will increase from 2009 to 2020, especially for direct drive machines. DFAGs accounted for highest number of unit sales in 2009.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

The variation in the copper content of CSG generators depends upon whether they are coupled with single-stage (heavier) or three-stage (lighter) gearboxes. Similarly, the difference in copper content in PMSG generators depends on whether the turbines are medium speed, which are heavier, or high speed turbines, which are lighter.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

There is increasing demand for synchronous machines and direct drive configurations. CSG direct and geared DFAGs will lead the demand for copper. The highest growth in demand is expected to be the direct PMSGs, which is forecasted to account for 7.7% of the total demand for copper in wind power systems in 2015.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

Locations with high speed turbulent winds are better suited for variable speed wind turbine generators with full-scale power converters due to the greater reliability and availability they offer in such conditions. Of the variable-speed wind turbine options, PMSGs could be preferred over DFAGs in such locations. In conditions with low wind speed and turbulence, DFAGs could be preferred to PMSGs.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

Generally, PMSGs deal better with grid-related faults and they could eventually offer higher efficiency, reliability, and availability than geared counterparts. This could be achieved by reducing the number of mechanical components in their design. Currently, however, geared wind turbine generators have been more thoroughly field-tested and are less expensive due to the greater volumes produced.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

The current trend is for PMSG hybrid installations with a single-stage or 2-stage gearbox. The most recent wind turbine generator by Vestas is geared drive. The most recent wind turbine generator by Siemens is a hybrid. Over the medium-term, if the cost of power electronics continues to decrease, direct-drive PMSG are expected to become more attractive.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in the generators

High-temperature superconductors (HTSG) technology is currently under development. It is expected that these machines will be able to attain more power than other wind turbine generators. If the offshore market follows the trend of larger unit machines, offshore could be the most suitable niche for HTSGs.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in other equipment

Finally, minor amounts of copper are used in air/oil and water cooled circuits on gearboxes or generators.

Copper in renewable energy – Copper in other equipment

Superconductivity|Superconducting materials are being tested within and outside of wind turbines. They offer higher electrical efficiencies, the ability to carry higher currents, and lighter weights. These materials are, however, much more expensive than copper at this time.

Optical fibre – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

2. ‘Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference’

Optical fibre – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

3. ‘Low attenuation loss over long distances’

Optical fibre – Advantages of Optical Fiber over Conventional Copper System

4 ‘Electrical Insulator’

Ethernet in the first mile – Copper wires

* ‘2BASE-TL’ — defined in clauses 61 and 63. Full-duplex long reach Point-to-point communication (telecommunications)|Point-to-Point link over voice-grade copper wiring. 2BASE-TL PHY can deliver a minimum of 2 Mbit/s and a maximum of 5.69 Mbit/s over distances of up to 2700 m (9,000ft), using ITU-T G.991.2 (G.SHDSL.bis) technology over a single copper pair.

Ethernet in the first mile – Copper wires

* ’10PASS-TS’ — defined in clauses 61 and 62. Full-duplex short reach Point-to-Point link over voice-grade copper wiring. 10PASS-TS PHY can deliver a minimum of 10 Mbit/s over distances of up to 750m (2460ft), using ITU G.993.1 (VDSL) technology over a single copper pair.

Backhaul (telecommunications) – Exception: Microwave superior to copper in some high-tower applications

The exception is very high towers, including cell towers. Where it can be deployed, microwave is cheaper, more scalable and more reliable than copper, though not as desirable as fiber…

Backhaul (telecommunications) – Exception: Microwave superior to copper in some high-tower applications

‘“If rural telcos think they can get away with not upgrading from copper, they will just lose [the tower] to microwave.” [http://www.forbes.com/sites/techonomy/2012/04/01/the-future-of-wireless-is-wired/]

Insulated metal substrate – Direct bonded copper substrate

The substrate is attached to a heat spreader by soldering the bottom copper layer to it.

Insulated metal substrate – Direct bonded copper substrate

* Alumina (Al2O3), which is widely used because of its low cost. It is however not a really good thermal conductor (24-28 W/mK) and is brittle.Source: Liu, Xingsheng (February 2001). Processing and Reliability Assessment of Solder Joint Interconnection for Power Chips. Virginia Tech Dissertation [http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04082001-204805/unrestricted/Appendix-A.PDF]

Insulated metal substrate – Direct bonded copper substrate

* Aluminium nitride (AlN), which is more expensive, but has far better thermal performance (references/

Insulated metal substrate – Direct bonded copper substrate

* The thermal performances of IMS, DBC and thick film substrate are evaluated in Thermal analysis of high-power modules Van Godbold, C., Sankaran, V.A. and Hudgins, J.L., IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 12, N° 1, Jan 1997, pages 3–11, ISSN 0885-8993 [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel3/63/12055/00554164.pdf?isnumber=12055?=STDarnumber=554164arnumber=554164arSt=3ared=11arAuthor=Van+Godbold%2C+C.%3B+Sankaran%2C+V.A.%3B+Hudgins%2C+J.L.] (restricted access)

100BASE-TX – Copper

‘100BASE-T’ is any of several Fast Ethernet standards for twisted pair cables, including: 100BASE-TX (100Mbit/s over two-pair Category 5 cable|Cat5 or better cable), 100BASE-T4 (100 Mbit/s over four-pair Category 3 cable|Cat3 or better cable, defunct), 100BASE-T2 (100Mbit/s over two-pair Cat3 or better cable, also defunct)

100BASE-TX – Copper

In the early days of Fast Ethernet, much vendor advertising centered on claims by competing standards that said vendors’ standards will work better with existing cables than other standards

Outside plant – Example: Copper access network

In civilian telecommunications, the copper access network (also known as the local loop) providing basic telephone or Digital subscriber line|DSL services typically consists of the following elements:

Outside plant – Example: Copper access network

*In-house wiring that connects customer premises equipment to the demarcation point, usually in residential installations contained in a weather protected box.

Outside plant – Example: Copper access network

*One or more twisted pairs, called a drop wire. The drop wires typically connect to a splice case, located in line for aerial cables, or in a small weather protected case for underground wiring, where the local cabling is connected to a secondary feeder line. These cables contain fifty or more twisted pairs.

Outside plant – Example: Copper access network

*Secondary feeder lines run to a streetside cabinet containing a distribution frame called a Serving Area Interface (SAI).

Outside plant – Example: Copper access network

*The Serving Area Interface|SAI is connected to the main distribution frame, located at a Telephone exchange or other switching facility, by one or more primary feeder lines which contain hundreds of copper twisted pairs. An Serving Area Interface|SAI may also contain a Digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) supporting Digital subscriber line|DSL service.

Outside plant – Example: Copper access network

Active equipment (such as a Plain old telephone service|POTS or Digital subscriber line|DSL line circuit) can then be connected to the line in order to provide service, but this is not considered part of outside plant.

Celeron 743 – Coppermine (microprocessor)|Coppermine-128 (180 nm)

* All models support: MMX (instruction set)|MMX, Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE

Copper-chlorine cycle

The ‘copper–chlorine cycle’ (Cu–Cl cycle) is a four-step thermochemical cycle for the production of hydrogen. The Cu–Cl cycle is a hybrid process that employs both Thermochemistry|thermochemical and electrolysis steps.

Copper-chlorine cycle

It has a maximum temperature requirement of about 530 degrees Celsius.[http://www.faqs.org/patents/app/20080256952 Solar power for thermochemical production of hydrogen]

Copper-chlorine cycle

The Cu–Cl cycle involves four chemical reactions for water splitting, whose net reaction decomposes water into hydrogen and oxygen. All other chemicals are recycled. The Cu–Cl process can be linked with nuclear plants or other heat sources such as solar and industrial waste heat to potentially achieve higher efficiencies, lower environmental impact and lower costs of hydrogen production than any other conventional technology.

Copper-chlorine cycle

The Cu–Cl cycle is one of the prominent thermochemical cycles under development within the Generation IV reactor|Generation IV International Forum (GIF). Through GIF, over a dozen countries around the world are developing the next generation of nuclear reactors for highly efficient production of both electricity and hydrogen.

Copper-chlorine cycle – Process description

and Masin, J., An Assessment of the Efficiency of the Hybrid Copper-Chloride Thermochemical Cycle, Argonne National Laboratory, University of Chicago, 2 November 2005

Copper-chlorine cycle – Process description

#2 CuCl ? CuCl2(aq) + Cu (ambient-temperature electrolysis)

Copper-chlorine cycle – Process description

Legend: (g)—gas; (l)—liquid;(aq)—aqueous solution; the balance of the species are in a solid phase. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited has demonstrated experimentally a CuCl electrolyzer in which hydrogen is produced electrolytically at the cathode and Cu(I) is oxidized to Cu(II) at the anode, thereby combining above steps 1 and 4 to eliminate the intermediate production and subsequent transport of solid copper.

Copper-chlorine cycle – Process description

Approximately 50% of the heat required to drive this reaction can be captured from the reaction itself. The other heat can be provided by any suitable process. Recent research has focused on a cogeneration scheme using the waste heat from nuclear reactors, specifically the CANDU reactor|CANDU supercritical water reactor.

Copper-chlorine cycle – Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of the copper–chlorine cycle include lower operating temperatures, the ability to use low-grade waste heat to improve energy efficiency, and potentially lower cost materials. In comparison with other thermochemical cycles, the Cu–Cl process requires relatively low temperatures of up to .

Copper-chlorine cycle – Advantages and disadvantages

Another significant merit of this cycle is a relatively low voltage (thus low electrical energy expenditure) that is required for the electrochemical step (0.6 to 1.0 V, perhaps even 0.5 if lower current density can be achieved)

Copper-chlorine cycle – Advantages and disadvantages

Solids handling between processes and corrosive working fluids present unique challenges for the engineering equipment development. Among others, the following materials are being currently used: spray coatings, nickel alloys, glass-lined steel, refractory materials, and other advanced materials.[http://hydrogen.uoit.ca/EN/main/research/CuCl/Materials_Corrosion.html Hydrogen Website of UOIT (University of Ontario Institute of Technology)]

Swimming pool sanitation – Copper ion system

Copper ion systems use a low voltage current across copper bars (solid copper, or a mixture of copper and zinc or silver) to free copper ions into the flow of pool water to kill organisms such as algae in the water and provide a residual in the water. Alternative systems also use titanium plates to produce oxygen in the water to help degrade organic compounds.

Copper indium gallium selenide – Structure

CIGS is a tetrahedrally chemical bond|bonded semiconductor, with the chalcopyrite crystal structure. Upon heating it transforms to the zincblende form and the transition temperature decreases from 1045 °C for x=0 to 805 °C for x=1.

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide

‘Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide’, or ‘BSCCO’ (pronounced bisko), is a family of high-temperature superconductors having the generalized chemical formula Bismuth|Bi2Strontium|Sr2Calcium|Can-1Copper|CunOxygen|O2n+4+x, with n=2 being the most commonly studied compound (though n=1 and n=3 have also received significant attention). Discovered as a general class in 1988,

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide

BSCCO was the first high-temperature superconductor which did not contain a rare earth element. It is a cuprate superconductor, an important category of high-temperature superconductors sharing a two-dimensional layered (perovskite (structure)|perovskite) structure (see figure at right) with superconductivity taking place in a copper oxide plane. BSCCO and YBCO are the most studied cuprate superconductors.

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide

Specific types of BSCCO are usually referred to using the sequence of the numbers of the metallic ions. Thus Bi-2201 is the n=1 compound (Bismuth|Bi2Strontium|Sr2Copper|CuOxygen|O6+x), Bi-2212 is the n=2 compound (Bismuth|Bi2Strontium|Sr2Calcium|CaCopper|Cu2Oxygen|O8+x) and Bi-2223 is the n=3 compound (Bismuth|Bi2Strontium|Sr2Calcium|Ca2Copper|Cu3Oxygen|O10+x).

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide

The BSCCO family is analogous to a thallium family of high-temperature superconductors referred to as TBCCO and having the general formula Thallium|Tl2Barium|Ba2Calcium|Can-1Copper|CunOxygen|O2n+4+x, and a mercury family HBCCO of formula Mercury (element)|HgBarium|Ba2Calcium|Can-1Copper|CunOxygen|O2n+2+x

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Properties

A key challenge therefore is to determine how to optimise all copper-oxygen layers simultaneously

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Properties

BSCCO is a Type II superconductor. The upper critical field, Hc2, in Bi-2212 polycrystalline samples at 4.2K has been measured as 200±25T (cf 168±26 T for YBCO polycrystalline samples).

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Properties

In practise HTS are limited by the irreversibility field, H*, above which magnetic vortices melt or decouple. Even though BSCCO has a higher upper critical field than YBCO it has a much lower H* (typically smaller by a factor of 100) thus limiting its use for making high-field magnets. It is for this reason that conductors of YBCO are preferred to BSCCO though they are much more difficult to fabricate.

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Wires and tapes

Further, because the superconductivity resides substantially only in the copper-oxygen planes the grains must be crystallographically aligned

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Wires and tapes

Typically, precursor powders are packed into a silver tube which is extruded down in diameter

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Wires and tapes

Typical tapes of 4mm width and 0.2mm thickness support a current at 77K of 200A, giving a critical current density (maximal amperes per square metre of cross-sectional area) in the Bi-2223 filaments of 5×105A/cm2. This rises markedly with decreasing temperature so that many applications are implemented at 30-35K, even though Tc is 108K.

Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide – Applications

*1G conductors made from Bi-2223 multifilamentary tapes.

Copper-clad steel

‘Copper-clad steel’ (‘CCS’), also known as ‘copper-covered steel’ or the trademarked name ‘Copperweld’ is a bi-metallic product, mainly used in the wire industry that combines the high mechanical resistance of steel with the electrical conductivity|conductivity and resistance to corrosion of copper.

Copper-clad steel

It is mainly used for grounding purposes, drop wire of telephone cables,[http://books.google.com/books?id=RgHnAAAAMAAJprintsec=frontcover#v=onepageqf=false The History of Copper Clad Wire (April 29, 1911) Telephony Vol.60 No.17, Telephone Publishing Corporation, Chicago and New York] and inner conductor (material)|conductor of coaxial cables, including thin hookup cables like RG174, and CATV cable.

Copper-clad steel – History

American engineers in 1883 and again in the 1890s made attempts to produce a copper-steel wire, in one instance at least, by electro-plating copper on steel.

Copper-clad steel – History

Prior to his discovery of the process under which this company operates in producing its copper clad, probably almost every other possible way of welding copper and steel together had been tried by Mr

Copper-clad steel – Uses

ground (electricity)|Grounding, union of ground rods to metallic structures, meshes, substations, power installations and lightning arrestors. This material has proven its aptitude for these purposes. More than 60 years of installations all around the world certify the excellence.

Copper-clad steel – Properties

The main properties of these conductors include:

Copper-clad steel – Advantages

Since the outer conductor layer is low-impedance copper, and the center is higher impedance steel, the skin effect gives copper-clad RF transmission lines impedance at high AC frequencies similar to that of a solid copper conductor.

Copper-clad steel – Advantages

Tensile strength of copper-clad steel conductors is greater than that of ordinary copper conductors permitting greater span lengths than with copper.

Copper-clad steel – Advantages

Another advantage is that smaller diameter copper-clad steel conductors may be used in coaxial cables, permitting higher impedance and smaller cable diameter than with copper conductors of similar strength.

Copper-clad steel – Advantages

Due to the inseparable union of the two metals, it deters theft since copper recovery is impractical and thus has very little scrap value.

Copper-clad steel – Advantages

Installations with copper-clad steel conductors are generally recognized as fulfilling the required specifications for a good Ground (electricity)|ground. For this reason it is used with preference by utilities and oil companies when cost is a concern.

Copper-clad aluminium wire

‘Copper-clad aluminium wire’, commonly abbreviated as ‘CCAW or CCA’, is an electrical conductor composed of an inner aluminium core and outer copper cladding (metalworking)|cladding.

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Uses

The primary applications of this conductor revolve around weight reduction requirements. These applications include high-quality coils, such as the voice coils in headphones, portable loudspeakers or mobile coils; high frequency coaxial applications; such as RF antennas; CATV distribution cables; and power cables.

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Uses

CCA was also used in electrical wiring|mains cable for domestic and commercial premises. The copper/aluminium construction was adopted to avoid some of the problems with aluminium wire, yet retain some of the cost advantage. But, solid copper is most commonly used in internal residential 120v or 240v wiring in the US.

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Uses

CCA became extremely popular on emerging markets as a cheap replacement for copper category 5e twisted pair cables.

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Properties

The properties of copper-clad aluminium wire include:

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Properties

* Lighter than pure copper

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Properties

* Higher electrical conductivity than pure aluminium

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Properties

* Better solderability than aluminium, due to the lack of the oxide layer which prevents solder adhesion when soldering bare aluminium.

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Properties

* Less expensive than a pure copper wire

Copper-clad aluminium wire – Properties

* Typically produced as a 10% or 15% by copper volume product

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture – Copper hoards

Initially, the copper hoards were known mostly from the Ganges-Jumuna doab and most characterizations dwell on this material.

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture – Copper hoards

Characteristic hoard artefacts from southern Haryana/northern Rajasthan include flat axes (celts), harpoons, double axes, and antenna-hilted swords. The doab has a related repertory. Artefacts from the Chota Nagpur area are very different; they seem to resemble ingots and are votive in character.

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture – Copper hoards

The raw material may have been derived from a variety of sources in Rajasthan (Khetri), Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha (especially Singhbhum), and Madhya Pradesh (Malanjkhand).

Copper tubing

‘Copper tubing’ is most often used for supply of hot and cold tap water, and as refrigerant line in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper. Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers a high level of resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly.

Copper tubing – Soft copper

Soft copper is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and heat pumps.

Copper tubing – Rigid copper

Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing process, cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and allowed to slowly cool, called Annealing (metallurgy)|annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can be bent/formed without cracking.

Copper tubing – Soldered connections

Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular choice for water supply lines in modern buildings

Copper tubing – Compression connections

Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring or olive) which is squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut

Copper tubing – Flare connections

Flare fitting|Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape using a ‘flare tool’. A ‘flare nut’ then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare connections are a labor-intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the course of many years.

Copper tubing – Crimped or pressed connections

Thousands of pounds-force per square inch of pressure are used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner copper tubing, creating a water tight seal

Copper tubing – Corrosion

Copper water tubes are susceptible to: cold water pitting caused by contamination of the pipe interior, typically with soldering flux; erosion corrosion of copper water tubes|erosion corrosion caused by high speed or turbulent flow; and stray current corrosion, caused by poor electrical wiring technique, such as improper grounding and bonding.

Copper tubing – Pin holes

Correctly installed plumbing appliances will have a copper bonding jumper cable connecting the interrupted pipe sections

Copper tubing – Pin holes

The difference between a ground and a bond is subtle. See Ground (electricity)#AC power wiring installations|Ground, for a complete description.

Copper tubing – Pin holes

Pitting occurs because the electrical voltage ionizes the pipe’s interior copper metal, which reacts chemically with dissolved minerals in the water creating copper salts; these copper salts are soluble in water and wash away

Copper tubing – Pin holes

Detecting and eliminating poor bonding is relatively straightforward

Copper tubing – Pin holes

Correcting the problem is a simple matter of either purchasing a copper bonding jumper kit, composed of copper cable at least #6 AWG in diameter and two bronze ground clamps for affixing it the plumbing. See NFPA 70, the U.S. National Electrical Code|National Electrical Code Handbook (NEC), section on bonding and ground for details on selecting the correct bonding conductor wire size.

Copper tubing – Pin holes

A similar bonding jumper wire can also be seen crossing gas meters, but for a different reason.

Copper tubing – Pin holes

However, if homeowners are experiencing shocks or large sparks from plumbing fixtures or pipes, it is more serious than a missing bond. Larger voltages may be caused by a live electrical wire bridging to the plumbing, and improper or missing plumbing system grounding. Such a situation poses an electrical shock hazard and potential fire danger; an electrician should be consulted immediately.

Chromated copper arsenate

‘Chromated copper arsenate’ (CCA) is a wood preservative that has been used for timber treatment since the mid-1930s. It is a mix of chromium, copper and arsenic (as Copper(II) arsenate) formulated as oxides or salts, and is recognizable for the greenish tint it imparts to timber. CCA was invented in 1933 by Dr. Sonti Kamesam, an Indian scientist, and was awarded its first patent (British) in 1934.Hunt and Garratt, Wood Preservation, 1938, p. 127

Chromated copper arsenate

CCA is known by many trade names and is the world’s most widely-used wood preservative. It is manufactured to national and international standards depending on the country of intended use, including AWPA P23-10 for the USA and SANS 673 for South Africa, and each manufacturer needs to comply with these standards.

Chromated copper arsenate – Mechanism of action

The copper acts primarily to protect the wood against decay fungi and bacteria, while the arsenic is the main insecticidal component of CCA, providing protection from wood attacking insects including termites and marine borers

Chromated copper arsenate – Releases to the environment

Over time small amounts of the CCA constituents, mainly the arsenic, may leach out of the treated timber, according to the United States’ Environment Protection Agency website.www.epa.gov/oppad001/reregistration/cca/cca_consumer_safety.htm However, arsenic is found naturally in the soil, food and water

Chromated copper arsenate – Releases to the environment

A more serious risk than leaching is presented if CCA-treated timber is burnt in confined spaces such as a domestic fire or barbecue, and the smoke is inhaled. Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance in both commercial, and domestic fires.

Chromated copper arsenate – Releases to the environment

Notwithstanding this, disposal by burning, e.g. in approved incinerators, is an acceptable option, and some energy may be captured in the process.

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

Biomonitoring of Arsenic in Urine and Saliva of Children Playing on Playgrounds Constructed from Chromated Copper Arsenate-Treated Wood

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

Structures. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115 (50:781-786 However, in response to the pressures at the time, the wood preservation industry in the USA and Canada volunteered not to use CCA for the treatment of residential timber. On 31 December 2003 the production of CCA-treated wood for such applications became a violation of the manufacturers’ labels approved by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).www.cpsc.gov//PageFiles/122137/270.pdf

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

The US EPA advised that CCA-treated timber products already in use, including playsets and decks, could remain in place. Exceptions to the restrictions were allowed, including the treatment of shakes and Shake (roof)|shingles, permanent wood foundation (architecture)|foundations, and certain commercial applications.

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

Following the USA and Canada actions in restricting CCA, similar actions were taken in other parts of the world, including the EU and Australia

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

In 2003, the Environmental Risk Management Authority in New Zealand, reviewing the same data that prompted the actions elsewhere, concluded that there was no reason to restrict CCA use for any applications, but notes that few well-designed studies have been carried out of those using CCA or CCA-treated timber.[http://www.epa.govt.nz/Publications/cca-report.pdf] – Timber Treatment Chemicals

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

Biomonitoring of Arsenic in Urine and Saliva of Children Playing on Playgrounds Constructed from Chromated Copper Arsenate-Treated Wood

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

CCA-treated timber is still in widespread use in many countries and remains an economical option for conferring durability to perishable timbers such as plantation-grown pine. The chemical will continue to be used in the US and countries across the world in a wide variety of commercial and industrial applications such as poles, piling, retaining structures and many others.

Chromated copper arsenate – Limitation of human exposure

Disposal of large quantities of CCA-treated wastes or spent timber at the end of its lifecycle has been traditionally through controlled landfill sites

Chromated copper arsenate – Alternatives

Alternative heavy-duty preservatives include creosote and pentachlorophenol. Similar water-borne preservatives include alkaline copper quaternary compounds (Alkaline Copper Quaternary|ACQ), Wood preservation#Copper azole|copper azole (CuAz), ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate (ACZA), copper citrate, and copper HDO (CuHDO)

1995 NASCAR SuperTruck Series presented by Craftsman – Skoal Bandit Copper World Classic

The Skoal Bandit Copper World Classic, the first SuperTruck race to be run, was an 80 lap race held February 5 at Phoenix International Raceway. Ron Hornaday, Jr.|Ron Hornaday won the pole.

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

The Italian Football Championship 1920-21|1920–21 season, which ended with the Friulani eliminated in the Eliminatoria Veneta, was memorable because it was the debut of Gino Bellotto, who is still the player who has played the most seasons with Udinese, spending 17 seasons with the Zebrette.

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

In 1922, Udinese, taking advantage of the absence of big clubs, entered the Italian Football Championship 1921-22 (F.I.G.C.)|F.I.G.C. Italian Football Championship and reached the Coppa Italia final losing 1–0 against F.C. Vado|Vado, thanks to an overtime goal.

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

In the league, Udinese finished second in Girone Eliminatorio Veneto, which allowed them to remain in the top flight for the next season, despite a reform of the championships that reduced the number of teams in the competition.

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

The Italian Football Championship 1922-23|1922–23 season was a disastrous one for Udinese, as they came last in and were relegated to the second division

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

The 1924–25 season was memorable. The team was included in Group F II Division. The championship was very even and at the end of the tournament three teams were in contention to win: Udinese, Vicenza Calcio|Vicenza and Olympia River. Playoffs were needed to determine who would reach the final round.

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

Udinese beat Olympia in a playoff 1–0 and drew 1–1 with Vicenza. In the play-off standings, Udinese and Vicenza were still in the lead with 3 points each. Another play-off was then played to determine the winner. After a first encounter finished 0–0, Udinese lost a replay 2–1 but were awarded the win as Vicenza fielded an ineligible player, a Hungarian called Horwart. Udinese reached the finals in place of Vicenza.

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

In the final round, Udinese finished first and was promoted, alongside Parma F.C.|Parma, to Prima Divisione|First Division

Udinese Calcio – The 20s: Coppa Italia final

They remained in Second Division until the end of the 1928–29 season when Serie A and Serie B were created, with Udinese falling into the third tier (Terza Serie). The first season in Terza Serie was a triumphant one and Udinese were promoted up to Serie B.

Copperfield, Austin, Texas

‘Copperfield’ is located in north Austin, Texas|Austin (78753)

Copperfield, Austin, Texas – Boundaries

Dessau Rd. and Parmer Ln. intersection, Dessau Rd. and Shropshire/Braker Ln. Cut-off intersecttion, and off east Yager Ln. and Parmer Ln. intersection (by the sonic), and Copperfield Dr. and Yager Ln. crossroad.

Pentium III – Coppermine

Athlon held the advantage in floating-point intensive code, while the Coppermine could perform better when SSE optimizations were used, but in practical terms there was little difference in how the two chips performed, clock-for-clock

Pentium III – Coppermine

The Coppermine core was unable to reliably reach the 1.13GHz speed without various tweaks to the processor’s microcode, effective cooling, additional voltage (1.75 V vs

Pentium III – Coppermine

It shares with the Coppermine-128 Celeron its 133 MT/s front side bus, 128KB L2 cache, and 180nm process technology.[http://www.vanshardware.com/articles/2001/december/011206_More_On_Xbox_CPU/011206_More_On_Xbox_CPU.htm VHJ: More on the Xbox CPU]

Pentium III – Coppermine

[http://www.overclockersonline.com/index.php?page=articlesnum=31 Copper Shims], Overclockers Online, December 3, 2000.

Pentium III – Coppermine T

This revision is an intermediate step between Coppermine and Tualatin, with support for lower-voltage system logic present on the latter but core power within previously defined voltage specs of the former so it could work in older system boards.

Pentium III – Coppermine T

The Coppermine T also had two way symmetrical multiprocessing capabilities, but only in FC-PGA2 boards.

Pentium III – Coppermine T

They can be distinguished from Tualatin processors by their part numbers, which include the digits: 80533 e.g. the 1133MHz SL5QK P/N is: RK80533PZ006256, while the 1000MHz SL5QJ P/N is: RK80533PZ001256.

Pentium III – Coppermine (0.18 µm)

* L1-Cache: 16 + 16 KB (Data + Instructions)

Pentium III – Coppermine (0.18 µm)

* MMX (instruction set)|MMX, Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE

Internet censorship in the United States – Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)

jurisdiction from children under 13 years of age and details what a website operator must include in a privacy policy, when and how to seek verifiable consent from a parent or guardian, and what responsibilities an operator has to protect children’s privacy and safety online including restrictions on the marketing to those under 13.[http://www.ftc.gov/privacy/coppafaqs.htm Frequently Asked Questions about the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Rule], U.S

CopperEgg

CopperEgg software products integrate into public cloud providers such as Amazon EC2 and Rackspace

CopperEgg – History

Scott Johnson and Eric Anderson co-founded CopperEgg in 2010. Johnson previously co-founded Thomas Conrad, a networking hardware company that was acquired by Compaq Computer Corp. in 1995. He went on to co-found Surgient Networks in 2000, where he was the chief technology officer.

CopperEgg – History

Anderson was formerly a software consultant and has held engineering roles at Austin-based Centaur Technology and also worked with Johnson at a previous startup in Austin called StorSpeed Inc.

CopperEgg – History

The CopperEgg name is a reference to the Egg of Columbus or Columbus Egg, which refers to a brilliant idea or discovery that seems simple or easy after the fact and it also pays homage to Nikola Tesla who demonstrated the principles of a rotating magnetic field and induction motor by demonstrating how to make a copper egg stand on end.

CopperEgg – History

On July 2013, Idera, an application and server management solutions provider, acquired CopperEgg as a wholly owned subsidiary. The company stated the acquisition would combine Idera’s database monitoring and CopperEgg’s server and application performance management software to give its customers better visibility and control over their IT environments with SaaS-based management.

CopperEgg – Venture capital

CopperEgg has raised a total of $4.1M Series A funding, and is backed by Austin-based Silverton Partners and Webb Investment Network, the investment fund of former eBay executive Maynard Webb, and several other private investors

CopperEgg – Growth

CopperEgg is addressing a market that according to IDC has spending on public IT cloud services growing at a compounding annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27.6 percent from $21.5 billion in 2010 to $72.9 billion in 2015. The 451 Group reports that CopperEgg has over 200 paying customers. And the company has strategic partnerships with companies such as Amazon AWS, advanced technical partner; Rackspace; SolarWinds; and Blitz IO.

CopperEgg – Technology

New economics, technologies and consumption models have been driving the adoption of cloud computing, and companies like CopperEgg are developing products to address the new challenges that go along with it: lack of visibility and control.

CopperEgg – Technology

CopperEgg provides a collection of SaaS-based cloud monitoring and analytic solutions that help companies accelerate the delivery of applications and services across public and private cloud environments.

CopperEgg – Technology

CopperEgg further extended the product by introducing server application process monitoring with an update in 2012

CopperEgg – Technology

The company launched a second product in July 2012, a Website monitoring solution called RevealUptime. RevealUptime provides up to a 15 second response time, uptime and health updates on Websites, Web applications, Web services and TCP ports, visible through a SaaS application. These performance metrics can be viewed together with the corresponding servers monitored by the RevealCloud product.

CopperEgg – Technology

On October 2012, CopperEgg added a management API that provides open programmatic access for automating and orchestrating server monitoring, website uptime analysis, and cloud infrastructure management. This update also added software-defined monitoring with DevOps integration into third-party automation tools such as Chef and Puppet.

Copper alloys

Today the term copper alloy tends to be substituted, especially by museums.[http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?scopeType=TermsscopeId=18864 British Museum, Scope Note for copper alloy]

Copper alloys – Brasses

A brass is an alloy of copper with zinc. Brasses are usually yellow in color. The zinc content can vary between few % to about 40%; as long as it is kept under 15%, it does not markedly decrease corrosion resistance of copper.

Copper alloys – Brasses

Brasses can be sensitive to selective leaching corrosion under certain conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy (dezincification), leaving behind a spongy copper structure.

Copper alloys – Bronzes

A bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, most often tin, but also aluminium and silicon.

Copper alloys – Bronzes

* Aluminium bronzes are alloys of copper and aluminium. The content of aluminium ranges mostly between 5-11%. Iron, nickel, manganese and silicon are sometimes added. They have higher strength and corrosion resistance than other bronzes, especially in marine environment, and have low reactivity to sulfur compounds. Aluminium forms a thin Passivation (chemistry)|passivation layer on the surface of the metal.

Copper alloys – Bronzes

* Nickel bronzes, e.g. nickel silver and cupronickel

Copper alloys – Precious metal alloys

Copper is often alloyed with precious metals like silver and gold, to create, for example, Corinthian bronze, hepatizon, tumbaga and shakud?.

Electrical wiring – Copper conductors

Electrical devices often contain copper conductors because of their multiple beneficial properties, including their high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation)|creep resistance, corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, solderability, resistance to electrical overloads, compatibility with electrical insulators, and ease of installation.

Electrical wiring – Copper conductors

litz-wire.com For example, copper is used to conduct electricity in high, medium and low voltage power networks, including power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, data processing, instrumentation, Home appliance|appliances, entertainment systems, motors, transformers, heavy industrial machinery, and countless other types of electrical equipment.Joseph, Günter, 1999, Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, Kundig, Konrad J.A

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper

Metallic copper does not bond well to glass. Its copper(I) oxide|oxide, , however, is wetted by molten glass and partially dissolves in it, forming a strong bond. The oxide also bonds well to the underlying metal. Copper(II) oxide causes weak joints that may leak and its formation has to be prevented.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper

The oxidation occurs by oxygen diffusing through the molten borate layer and forming copper(I) oxide, while formation of copper(II) oxide is inhibited.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper

The copper-to-glass seal should look brilliant red, almost scarlet; pink, sherry and honey colors are also acceptable. Too thin oxide layer looks light, up to the color of metallic copper. Too thick oxide looks too dark.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper

Oxygen-free copper has to be used if the metal comes in contact with hydrogen (e.g. in a gas-filled tube|hydrogen-filled tube or during handling in the flame). Normally, copper contains small inclusions of copper(I) oxide. Hydrogen diffuses through the metal and reacts with the oxide, reducing it to copper and yielding water. The water molecules however can not diffuse through the metal, are trapped in the location of the inclusion, and cause hydrogen embrittlement|embrittlement.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper

As copper bonds well to the glass, it is often used for combined glass-metal devices. The ductility of copper can be used for compensation of the thermal expansion mismatch in e.g. the knife-edge seals. For wire feed throughs, dumet wire – nickel-iron alloy plated with copper – is frequently used. Its maximum diameter is however limited to about 0.5mm due to its thermal expansion.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper

Copper can be sealed to glass without the oxide layer, but the resulting joint is less strong.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

In a later variant, only a short section of the copper tube has a thin wall and the copper tube is hindered to shrink at cooling by a ceramic tube

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

If large parts of copper are to be fitted to glass like the water cooled copper anode of a high power radio transmitter tube or an x-ray tube historically the Houskeeper knife edge seal is used. Here the end of a copper tube is machined to a sharp knife edge, invented by O. Kruh in 1917. In the method described by W.G. Houskeeper the outside or the inside of the

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

copper tube right to the knife edge is wetted with glass and connected to the glass tube. In later descriptions the knife edge is just wetted several millimeters deep with glass, usually deeper on the inside, and then connected to the glass tube.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

If copper is sealed to glass, it is an advantage to get a thin bright red containing layer between copper and glass. This is done by borating. After W.J. Scott a copper plated tungsten wire is immersed for about 30 s in chromic acid and

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

then washed thoroughly in running tap water. Then it is dipped into a saturated solution of borax and heated to bright red heat

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

in the oxidizing part of a gas flame. Possibly followed by quenching in water and drying. Another method is to oxidize the

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

copper slightly in a gas flame and then to dip it into borax solution and let it dry. The surface of the borated

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

copper is black when hot and turns to dark wine red on cooling.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

It is also possible to make a bright seal between copper and glass where it is possible to see the blank copper surface through the glass, but this gives less adherence than the seal with the red containing layer. If glass is melted on

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

copper in a reducing hydrogen atmosphere the seal is extremely weak. If copper is to be heated in hydrogen-containing atmosphere e.g. a gas flame it

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

needs to be oxygen-free to prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Copper which is meant to be used as an electrical conductor is not necessarily oxygen-free

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

and contains particles of which react with hydrogen that diffuses into the copper to which cannot diffuse out-off the

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

copper and thus causes embrittlement. The copper usually used in vacuum applications is of the very pure OFHC (oxygen-free-high-conductivity)

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper tube seal

quality which is both free of and deoxidising additives which might evaporate at high temperature in vacuum.

Glass-to-metal seal – Copper disc seal

The keys to success are proper borating, heating of the joint to a temperature as close to the melting point of the copper as possible and to slow down the cooling, at least by packing the assembly into glass wool while it is still red hot.

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

In CCA treatment, copper is the primary fungicide, arsenic is a secondary fungicide and an insecticide, and chromium is a fixative which also provides ultraviolet (UV) light resistance. Recognized for the greenish tint it imparts to timber, CCA is a preservative that was extremely common for many decades.

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

In the #Application processes|pressure treatment process, an aqueous solution of CCA is applied using a vacuum and pressure cycle, and the treated wood is then stacked to dry. During the process, the mixture of oxides reacts to form insoluble compounds, helping with leaching problems.

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

The process can apply varying amounts of preservative at varying levels of pressure to protect the wood against increasing levels of attack. Increasing protection can be applied (in increasing order of attack and treatment) for: exposure to the atmosphere, implantation within soil, or insertion into a marine environment.

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

A study cited in Forest Products Journal found 12–13% of the chromated copper arsenate leached from treated wood buried in compost during a 12-month period

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

In Australia, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority () restricted the use of CCA preservative for treatment of timber used in certain applications from March 2006

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

In Europe, [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:004:0009:0011:EN:PDF Directive 2003/2/EC] restricts the marketing and use of arsenic, including CCA wood treatment. CCA treated wood is not permitted to be used in residential or domestic constructions. It is permitted for use in various industrial and public works, such as bridges, highway safety fencing, electric power transmission and telecommunications poles.

Heat treatment of wood – Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

In the United Kingdom waste timber treated with CCA was classified in July 2012 as hazardous waste by the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [http://www.defra.gov.uk/consult/files/consult-wood-waste-researchreview-20120731.pdf].

Heat treatment of wood – Alkaline copper quaternary

ACQ has come into wide use in the USA, Europe, Japan and Australia following restrictions on #Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)|CCA.www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplrp/fpl_rp618.pdf Its use is governed by national and international standards, which determine the volume of preservative uptake required for a specific timber end use.

Heat treatment of wood – Alkaline copper quaternary

Since it contains high levels of copper, ACQ-treated timber is five times more corrosive to common steel. It is necessary to use double-galvanized or stainless steel fasteners in ACQ timber. Use of fasteners meeting or exceeding requirements for ASTM A 153 Class D meet the added requirements for fastener durability. The U.S. began mandating the use of non-arsenic containing wood preservatives for virtually all residential use timber in 2004.

Heat treatment of wood – Alkaline copper quaternary

The American Wood Protection Association (AWPA) standards for ACQ require a retention of 0.15lb/ft3 (PCF) for above ground use and 0.40lb/ft3 for ground contact.

Heat treatment of wood – Alkaline copper quaternary

Chemical Specialties, Inc (CSI, now Viance) received United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award in 2002 for commercial introduction of ACQ. Its widespread use has eliminated major quantities of arsenic and chromium previously contained in CCA.

Heat treatment of wood – Copper azole

Copper azole preservative (denoted as CA-B and CA-C under American Wood Protection Association/AWPA standards) is a major copper based wood preservative that has come into wide use in Canada, the USA, Europe, Japan and Australia following restrictions on CCA. Its use is governed by national and international standards, which determine the volume of preservative uptake required for a specific timber end use.

Heat treatment of wood – Copper azole

Copper azole is similar to ACQ with the difference being that the dissolved copper preservative is augmented by an azole co-biocide like Tebuconazole instead of the quat biocide used in ACQ. Report Research Paper FPL?RP?618. The azole co-biocide yields a copper azole product that is effective at lower retentions than required for equivalent ACQ performance.

Heat treatment of wood – Copper azole

It is marketed widely under the Wolmanized brand in North America, and the Tanalith brand across Europe and other international markets.

Heat treatment of wood – Copper azole

The AWPA standard retention for CA-B is 0.10lb/ft3 for above ground applications and 0.21lb/ft3 for ground contact applications. Type C copper azole, denoted as CA-C, has been introduced under the Wolmanized brand. The AWPA standard retention for CA-C is 0.06lb/ft3 for above ground applications and 0.15lb/ft3 for ground contact applications.

Heat treatment of wood – Copper azole

The copper azole preservative incorporates organic triazoles such as tebuconazole or propiconazole as the co-biocide, which are also used to protect food crops. The general appearance of wood treated with copper azole preservative is similar to CCA with a green colouration.

Heat treatment of wood – Other copper compounds

These include copper HDO (CuHDO), copper chromate, copper citrate, acid copper chromate, and ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate (ACZA). The CuHDO treatment is an alternative to CCA, ACQ and CA used in Europe and in approval stages for United States and Canada. ACZA is generally used for marine applications.

Heat treatment of wood – Micronized copper technology

The other uses an azole biocide (known as MCA or ?CA-C) and is a take-off of Copper Azole.

Heat treatment of wood – Micronized copper technology

The particulate copper systems provide a lighter color than dissolved copper systems such as ACQ or copper azole.

Heat treatment of wood – Micronized copper technology

Proponents of the micronized copper systems claim that the systems are subject to third party inspection under a quality monitor program. However, the monitoring program is not subject to oversight by the American Lumber Standards Committee (ALSC) as is required for the AWPA standard systems.

Heat treatment of wood – Micronized copper technology

Two particulate copper systems, one marketed as MicroPro and the other as Wolmanized using ?CA-C formulation, have achieved Environmentally Preferable Product (EPP) certification. The EPP certification was issued by Scientific Certifications Systems (SCS), and is based on a comparative life-cycle impact assessments with an industry standard.

Heat treatment of wood – Micronized copper technology

[https://pubs.acs.org/action/showLogin?uri=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fisubscribe%2Fjournals%2Fcen%2F86%2Fi35%2Fhtml%2F8635scic.html6] An environmental group has recently petitioned EPA to revoke the registration of the micronized copper products citing safety issues

Brewing – Brew kettle or copper

Copper is the traditional material for the boiling vessel, because copper transfers heat quickly and evenly, and because the bubbles produced during boiling, and which would act as an insulator against the heat, do not cling to the surface of copper, so the wort is heated in a consistent manner

Mali Empire – Copper

Copper was also a valued commodity in imperial Mali. Copper, traded in bars, was mined from Takedda in the north and traded in the south for gold. Contemporary sources claim 60 copper bars traded for 100 dinars of gold.

Panic of 1907 – Cornering copper

Heinze had made a fortune as a copper magnate in Butte, Montana

Panic of 1907 – Cornering copper

Augustus’ brother, Otto, devised the scheme to corner United Copper, believing that the Heinze family already controlled a majority of the company

Panic of 1907 – Cornering copper

Otto had misread the market, and the share price of United Copper began to collapse.

Panic of 1907 – Cornering copper

The stock closed at $30 on Tuesday and fell to $10 by Wednesday. Otto Heinze was ruined. The stock of United Copper was traded outside the hall of the New York Stock Exchange, literally an outdoor market on the curb (this curb market would later become the American Stock Exchange). After the crash, The Wall Street Journal reported, Never has there been such wild scenes on the Curb, so say the oldest veterans of the outside market.

John Wilkinson (industrialist) – Copper Interests

Its aim was to ensure both a good return for the Cornish miners and a stable price for the users of copper

John Wilkinson (industrialist) – Copper Interests

To help his business interests and to service his trade tokens, Wilkinson bought into partnerships with banks in Birmingham, Bilston, Bradley, Brymbo and Shrewsbury.

Smelter – Copper and bronze

The earliest current evidence of copper smelting, dating from between 5500BC and 5000BC, has been found in Plo?nik and Belovode, Serbia.www.stonepages.com/news/archives/002557.htmlhttp://www.archaeologydaily.com/news/201006274431/Belovode-site-in-Serbia-may-have-hosted-first-copper-makers.html A mace head found in Can Hasan, Turkey and dated to 5000BC, once thought to be the oldest evidence, now appears to be hammered native copper.books.google.co.uk/books?id=QHAlOAAACAAJdq=ancient+turkeyhl=enei=V4M7TOnjAcH8sQaPhrzvBgsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=2ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ

Smelter – Copper and bronze

By combining copper with tin and/or arsenic in the right proportions one obtains bronze, an alloy which is significantly harder than copper. The first Arsenical bronze|copper/arsenic bronzes date from 5th millennium BC|4200BC from Asia Minor. The Inca bronze alloys were also of this type. Arsenic is often an impurity in copper ores, so the discovery could have been made by accident; but eventually arsenic-bearing minerals were intentionally added during smelting.

Smelter – Copper and bronze

The first such bronzes were probably a lucky accident from tin contamination of copper ores, but by 2000BC, we know that tin was being mined on purpose for the production of bronze

Clement Clerke – Copper and company flotations

In 1687, while the lead cupola was out of their possession, Sir Clement and Talbot built a reverberatory furnace at Putney and smelted copper there. A patent was obtained for this in 1688. This led to the establishment of a copper smelting works close to the banks of the River Wye at Redbrook and the chartering of the English Copper Company.

Clement Clerke – Copper and company flotations

With the conclusion of the litigation, the cupola near Bristol reverted to Talbot Clerke. The Company for Smelting down Lead with Pitcoal (later in different ownership known as the London Lead Company) was chartered to run this, but this was evidently not successful and returned to Talbot (by then Sir Talbot) in 1695.

Clement Clerke – Copper and company flotations

‘A work for remelting and casting old iron with sea coal’ was built at ‘Fox Hall’ (probably Vauxhall under the direction of Sir Clement

Abraham Darby I – Copper at Coalbrookdale

This is likely to be linked to an increase in shipment of ‘Callumy’ (Calamine (mineral)|Calamine) up the river Severn from 1704 and Darby’s agreement in 1710 to open a copper mine at Harmer Hill in Myddle, on behalf of a ‘Company of the City of Bristol’

Western Federation of Miners – Michigan copper strike, 1913–1914

The union demanded an 8-hour day, a minimum wage of $3 per day, an end to use of the one-man drill, and that the companies recognize it as the employees’ representative.The Copper Country Strike

Western Federation of Miners – Michigan copper strike, 1913–1914

The mines reopened under National Guard protection, and many went back to work. The companies instituted the 8-hour day, but refused to set a $3 per day minimum wage, refused to abandon the one-man drill, and especially refused to employ Western Federation of Miners members.Lake Superior Wages. Engineering Mining Journal. December 13, 1913, p. 1136.

Western Federation of Miners – Michigan copper strike, 1913–1914

On Christmas Eve 1913, the Western Federation of Miners organized a party for strikers and their families at the Italian Benevolent Society hall in Calumet, Michigan|Calumet

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914

While unsuccessful, the strike is considered a turning point in the history of the Copper Country.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Background

He noted that samples of ore he had tested were richer than the copper ore being then mined in Cornwall.Bradish, Alvah, Memoir of Douglass Houghton, 1889

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Background

While most of the early mines failed, a few became successful, and eventually several major mines became established. The Copper Country quickly became the first major copper mining region in the United States. By 1913, the majority of copper in the Copper Country was produced by three companies: the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, by far the largest and richest mine in the Copper Country, as well as the Quincy Mine and the mines owned by the Copper Range Company.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Background

Cornish miners brought with them a system of mine operations based on contracts.Lankton, Larry: Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines, 1993 In this system, miners formed working groups (usually consisting of family members) which then contracted with mine operators to perform specific mining activities

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Background

Because of the Cornish influence in the Copper Country mines, the contract system was also used in the Copper Country. However, contracts were only used with miners, who identified and blasted out copper-bearing rock. Trammers, whose job was to remove the blasted-out rock in heavy tram cars, were not paid on a contract, and were often considered to be a lower class of worker.Lehto, Steve: Death’s Door: The Truth Behind Michigan’s Largest Mass Murder, 2006

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Major issues

Several major issues contributed to the strike of 1913-1914. Many were related to the operation of the mines, but some were also social issues which had risen in the public consciousness in the United States at the time.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Major issues

The Copper Country copper mines operated a heavily paternalistic system, in which the mines watched closely over workers’ lives both in and out of the mines

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Major issues

Another major complaint was the one-man drill

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Major issues

These mines were much richer than the Copper Country mines, and after several violent strikes led by the Western Federation of Miners, miners in the west made noticeably higher wages

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Major issues

The first was a demand for union recognition from management, and asking for a conference with the employers to adjust wages, hours, and working conditions in the copper district of Michigan

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The strike

The Western Federation of Miners (WFM) began organizing miners in the Copper Country in 1912

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The strike

The Keweenaw chapters of the WFM voted to strike on July 23, 1913. The strike was called without support from the national WFM organization, which had just finished major strikes in the western mines, and had very little money left in their treasury.Thurner, Arthur:Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula, 1994 However, once the strike was called, the WFM began to collect donations and fees from its members to support the strike.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The strike

The strike was the first strike to hit all Copper Country mines

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The strike

quote|Lawlessness broke loose throughout district today. Northwestern train windows smashed with rocks. 30 men broke into workmen’s home at Quincy. Row with deputies at Quincy. Paraders at Calumet armed with clubs. Three fights, 2 deputies badly cut up. 13 strikers arrested. 4 arrests near Ahmeek for shooting up workmen’s premises. 2 arrests at Allouez. Picketing throughout entire district.|Michigan National Guard General Perley L. Abbey to Governor Woodbridge Ferris, October 23, 1913

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The strike

Accusations of violence and dirty dealing flew from both sides

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The strike

At the same time, miners were struggling from lack of pay and supplies. The strike was very costly for the WFM, which provided support to strikers based on need and family size. The WFM’s coffers quickly emptied, leaving many miners and families living in poverty. A large number of families left the region entirely, looking for more work in the newly developing industrial centers of Detroit and Chicago. As the winter of 1913 began, the strike was weakening significantly.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Seeberville Affair

An incident called the Seeberville Affair occurred on August 14, 1913

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The Italian Hall Disaster

On Christmas Eve 1913, the Women’s Auxiliary of the WFM organized a Christmas party for strikers and their families. The union and many local citizens donated gifts for the children and money for the party supplies. The party was held in the upstairs ballroom of the Italian Hall, a building in Calumet, MI|Calumet which was owned by a mutual benefit society for Italians. The party was well attended, with hundreds of families attending, including many strikers’ children, packed into the ballroom.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The Italian Hall Disaster

At some point during the evening, according to most witnesses, an unidentified manLehto, Steve:Italian Hall: The Official Transcript of the Coroner’s Inquest, 2007 stepped into the ballroom and shouted Fire!, beginning a panic and stampede for the doors. The main exit from the ballroom was a steep stairway down to the front doors of the building. In the ensuing panic, 73 people were crushed to death in the stairwell, most of them children.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – The Italian Hall Disaster

The true identity of the person who shouted Fire! has never been established. There has been considerable speculation that the person was a member of the Citizens’ Alliance, an organization of business owners, citizens, and mine owners who opposed the strike. Several witnesses recalled seeing a Citizens’ Alliance button on the man’s jacket. However, the inquest into the disaster reached no conclusion.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Aftermath

However, support for the strike declined as organizers left (or were forced to leave) the Copper Country, the WFM ran out of money, and strikers’ families experienced great hardships during the winter

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Aftermath

The strike was mostly unsuccessful in achieving its major goals. The mining companies continued introducing the one man drill, which eventually became a standard in all Copper Country mines. Collective bargaining was thoroughly rejected by the mines, leaving miners at the whim of the companies. Many miners simply left the Copper Country, or else returned to the mines for which they formerly worked on the mines’ terms.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Aftermath

However, many Copper Country mines did introduce an 8 hour day partway through the strike, for the miners who had stayed to work for them. This continued after the strike, when national labor legislation required shorter workdays. Labor legislation also limited use of child labor and mandated higher daily wages for miners and trammers. All mines eventually changed to a daily wage, leaving behind the old family-group contract system entirely.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Aftermath

The strike is often considered a major turning point in the history of the Copper Country. Even though the mines were successful in the short term, the strike had demonstrated that mines could actually be affected by collective action. The strike also marked the end of the old paternalism of the mining companies. Workers’ lives were no longer watched by the mines, and the mines cut back many services which they previously provided.

Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914 – Aftermath

That left the White Pine mine as the only remaining Copper Country mine in production; the White Pine mine closed in 1995.

Florence – Scoppio del Carro

The Scoppio del Carro (Explosion of the Cart) is a celebration of the First Crusade

History of weapons – Copper Age

Weapons made of copper could be sharpened easily, but they were not able to hold their edge for a longer time.

History of weapons – Copper Age

After the discovery of pure copper in Anatolia, around 6000 BCE, copper metallurgy spread in Egypt and Mesopotamia

Copper tubing – Compression connections

Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring, olive or ferrule) which is squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut

Copper tubing – Pin holes

Correctly installed plumbing appliances will have a copper bonding jumper cable connecting the interrupted pipe sections

Copper tubing – Pin holes

Detecting and eliminating poor bonding is relatively straightforward

David Copperfield (illusionist)

‘David Copperfield’ (born ‘David Seth Kotkin’; September 16, 1956) is an American illusionist, and has been described by Forbes as the most commercially successful Illusionist|magician in history.[http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2006/0508/153.html Houdini in the Desert]. Forbes.com. May 8, 2006

David Copperfield (illusionist)

September 5, 2013[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0004518/ David Copperfield]

David Copperfield (illusionist)

When not performing, he manages his chain of eleven islands in the Bahamas – Musha Cay and the Islands of Copperfield Bay, which has completed a $35 million renovation under Copperfield’s supervision.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Early years

In 1974 Copperfield graduated from Metuchen High School.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Early years

As a teenager, Copperfield became fascinated with Broadway and frequently sneaked into shows, especially musicals featuring Stephen Sondheim or Bob Fosse

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

Copperfield sang, danced and created most of the original illusions used in the show

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

Copperfield played the character of Ken the Magician in the 1980 horror film Terror Train. He also made an uncredited appearance in the 1994 film Prêt-à-Porter (film)|Prêt-à-Porter. Most of his media appearances have been through television specials and guest spots on television programs. His illusions have included Vanishing the Statue of Liberty|making the Statue of Liberty disappear, flying, levitating over the Grand Canyon, and walking through the Great Wall of China.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

Copperfield climaxes his show with a flying routine, seven years in the making, that defies both logic and visual evidence — he could probably retire just by selling his secrets to future productions of Peter Pan.”Evans, Greg – David Copperfield: Dreams Nightmares, Variety, Dec 5, 1996.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

Also during 1996, Copperfield joined forces with Dean Koontz, Joyce Carol Oates, Ray Bradbury and others for David Copperfield’s Tales of the Impossible, an anthology of original fiction set in the world of magic and illusion. A second volume was later published in 1997, called David Copperfield’s Beyond Imagination. In addition to the 2 books, David also wrote an essay as part of the This I Believe series from NPR and the This I Believe, Inc.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

In 2002, he was the subject of an hour AE (TV channel)|AE Television network biographical special on his life career, aired on AE’s Biography Channel|Biography channel.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

On May 7, 2009, Copperfield was dropped by Michael Jackson from Jackson’s residency at the The O2 arena (London)|O2 Arena after an alleged row over money. Copperfield wanted $1 million (£666,000) per show. Copperfield denied the reports of a row, saying don’t believe everything you read. News of Copperfield’s collaboration with Jackson first surfaced on April 1, 2009, and has since been reported by several websites as a possible April Fool’s prank.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

In August 2009, Copperfield took his show to Australia.Pete Hellard, [http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,25181641-5003423,00.html David Copperfield to bring magic act to Australia]. Couriermail.com.au. March 15, 2009[http://www.smh.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/more-than-meets-the-eye/2009/08/06/1249350628986.html More Than Meets the Eye]. The Sydney Morning Herald, August 7, 2009

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

In January 2011 David Copperfield joined the cast of the new feature film Burt Wonderstone with Steve Carell, Jim Carrey, James Gandolfini, and Olivia Wilde. Copperfield and his team also developed illusions used in the film.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

During the interview, he and his girlfriend Chloe Gosselin, a French fashion model, announced their engagement, and appeared together briefly with their young daughter strolling down the beach on the island.Oprah’s Next Chapter: David Copperfield – @ OWNTV#Nextchapter

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Career and business interests

Copperfield notes that his role models growing up were not magicians, that My idols were Gene Kelly and Fred Astaire and Orson Welles and Walt Disney … they took their individual art forms and they moved people with them … I wanted to do the same thing with magic. I wanted to take magic and make it romantic and make it sexy and make it funny and make it goofy … all the different things that a songwriter gets to express or a filmmaker gets to express ….

David Copperfield (illusionist) – International Museum and Library of the Conjuring Arts

Begun in 1991 when Copperfield purchased the Mullholland Library of Conjuring and the Allied Arts, which contained the world’s largest collection of Houdini memorabilia, the museum comprises approximately 80,000 items of magic memorabilia, including Houdini’s Water Torture Cabinet and his Metamorphosis Trunk, Orson Welles’ Buzz Saw Illusion and automata created by Robert-Houdin.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – International Museum and Library of the Conjuring Arts

Located in a warehouse at Copperfield’s headquarters in Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas, the museum is entered via a secret door in what was described by actor Hugh Jackman as a sex shop[http://www.nypost.com/seven/10202007/news/nationalnews/cop_a_feel.htm COP-A-FEEL]

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Musha Cay and the Islands of Copperfield Bay

Copperfield has stated that the islands may contain the Fountain of Youth, a claim which resulted in him receiving a Dubious Achievement Award from Esquire Magazine in 2006.[http://www.esquire.com/features/ESQ0207dubious2006-2] Esquire February 20, 2007, Dubious Achievement Awards, 2006.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Magic Underground restaurant

Copperfield was not an investor in the project; the investors reportedly lost $34 million on the project, and subcontractors placed $15 million in liens.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Recorded message for expanded gambling in Maryland

In October 2012, Maryland residents received a robocall from Copperfield, supporting a Maryland ballot initiative that would expand gambling in the state.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Accidents and injuries

On March 11, 1984, while rehearsing an illusion called Escape from Death where he was shackled and handcuffed in a tank of water, Copperfield became tangled in the chains and started taking in water and banging into the sides of the tank

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Accidents and injuries

Doing a rope trick, Copperfield accidentally cut off the tip of his finger with sharp scissors. He was rushed to the hospital and the fingertip was re-attached.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Accidents and injuries

On December 17, 2008, during a live performance in Las Vegas, one of Copperfield’s assistants named Brandon, 26, was sucked into the spinning blades of a high industrial fan that Copperfield walks through. The assistant sustained multiple fractures to his arm, severe bleeding, and facial lacerations that required stitching. Copperfield canceled the rest of the performance and offered the audience members refunds.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

Becker won this lawsuit when Copperfield settled at the last moment and the publisher lost during the court trial.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

Copperfield’s publicist confirmed that while Schiffer had a contract to appear in the audience at Copperfield’s show in Berlin where they met, she was not under contract to be his consort.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

On August 25, 2000, Copperfield unsuccessfully sued Fireman’s Fund Insurance Company for reimbursement of a $506,343 ransom paid to individuals in Russia who had commandeered the entertainer’s equipment there.[http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2000/08/29/11324.htm David Copperfield Sues Fireman’s Fund]. Insurance Journal, August 29, 2000

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

Copperfield claimed that Melk had agreed to sell the property to Copperfield’s Imagine Nation Company, and that Copperfield negotiated the deal through a third party because he feared Melk was seeking to exploit Copperfield’s celebrity status by demanding an unrealistic price.[http://www.bahamasb2b.com/news/wmview.php?ArtID=3236 Magic Star in $56.5 Mil Exuma Resort Row,] Bahamas B2B.com, February 2, 2004 The case was settled in 2006

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

On November 6, 2007, Viva Art International Ltd and Maz Concerts Inc. sued Copperfield for nearly $2.2 million for breach of contract

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

and the Indonesian promoter of David Copperfield’s canceled shows in Jakarta held on to $550,000 worth of Copperfield’s equipment in lieu of money paid to Copperfield that had not been returned. Copperfield countersued. The dispute was resolved in July 2009.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Litigation

Copperfield was accused of sexual assault in 2007 by Lacey L. Carroll. A federal grand jury in Seattle closed the investigation in January 2010 without bringing charges against Copperfield. In January 2010, the Bellevue City Prosecutor’s Office brought misdemeanor charges against Carroll for prostitution and allegedly making a false accusation of rape in another case. Carroll filed a civil lawsuit against Copperfield, which was dropped in April 2010.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Personal life

Copperfield was engaged to supermodel Claudia Schiffer for six years; the couple separated in 1999 citing work schedules.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Personal life

According to his police statement, Copperfield did not hand over anything, claiming that he used sleight of hand to hide his possessions

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Personal life

Copperfield and his girlfriend Chloe Gosselin, a French fashion model who is 28 years his junior, had a daughter named Sky in February 2010. The news did not break publicly until over a year later, when The New York Post reported it in August 2011, and it was confirmed by Copperfield’s publicist.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Earnings

Forbes magazine reported that Copperfield earned $55 million in 2003, making him the tenth highest paid celebrity in the world (earnings figures are pre-tax and before deductions for agents’ and attorneys’ fees, etc.).

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Earnings

[http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/53/62B2.html Forbes.com 2005 listing] and [http://www.forbes.com/celebrities2004/LIR62B2.html?passListId=53passYear=2004passListType=PersonuniqueId=62B2datatype=Person 2004] Copperfield performs over 500 shows per year throughout the world.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Project Magic

In 1982, Copperfield founded Project Magic,

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Project Magic

a rehabilitation program to help disabled patients regain lost or damaged dexterity skills by using sleight-of-hand magic as a method of physical therapy. The program has been accredited by the American Occupational Therapy Association, and is in use in over 1100 hospitals throughout 30 countries worldwide. Copperfield made an appearance on Oprah Radio in April 2008 to talk with Oprah Radio host Mehmet Oz|Dr. Mehmet Oz about how the use of magic can help disabled people.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Achievements and awards

* The Society of American Magicians, Magician of the Century and King of Magic.[http://www.magicsam.com/press/index.asp#Copperfield2011 DAVID COPPERFIELD NAMED ‘KING OF MAGIC’ AND ‘MAGICIAN OF THE CENTURY’], magicsam.com, (September 14, 2011)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Achievements and awards

* Forbes’s The Celebrity 100 for 2009 ranks Copperfield as the 80th most powerful celebrity, with earnings of $30 million.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Achievements and awards

* Topped The Onion’s annual list of the World’s Most Powerful People, 2013

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Guinness World Records

Copperfield holds 11 Guinness World Records, including earnings and attendance records, and largest stage illusions.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of ABC Starring David Copperfield (September 7, 1977) (With special guests Fred Berry, Shaun Cassidy, Howard Cosell, Kate Jackson, Hal Linden, Penny Marshall, Kristy McNichol, Donny Osmond, Marie Osmond, Parker Stevenson, Dick Van Patten, Adam Rich, Abe Vigoda and Cindy Williams)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield (October 27, 1978) (With special guests Orson Welles, Carl Ballantine, Valerie Bertinelli, Sherman Hemsley, Bernadette Peters and Cindy Williams)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Nomination: Outstanding Achievement in Technical Direction and Electronic Camerawork

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield II (October 24, 1979) (With special guest Bill Bixby, Loni Anderson, Valerie Bertinelli, Robert Stack and Alan Alan)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield III: Levitating Ferrari (September 25, 1980) (With special guest Jack Klugman, Debby Boone, Mary Crosby, Louis Nye, Shimada, Cindy Williams and David Mendenhall).

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 2 Emmy Nominations: Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction; Outstanding Achievement in Technical Direction and Electronic Camerawork

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield IV: The Vanishing Airplane (October 26, 1981) (With special guest Jason Robards, Susan Anton, Audrey Landers, Catherine Bach, David Mendenhall, Barnard Hughes, Clark Brandon and Elaine Joyce)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Win: Outstanding Technical Direction and Electronic Camerawork

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield V: The Statue of Liberty Disappears (April 8, 1983) (With special guests Morgan Fairchild, Michele Lee, Eugene Levy, William B. Williams (DJ)|William B. Williams and Lynne Griffin)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield VI: Floating Over the Grand Canyon (April 6, 1984) (With special guests Ricardo Montalban, Bonnie Tyler and Heather Thomas)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Win: Outstanding Technical Direction/Camerawork/Video for a Limited Series or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield VII: Familiares (March 8, 1985) (With special guest Angie Dickinson, Teri Copley and Peggy Fleming)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Win: Outstanding Technical Direction/Electronic Camera/Video Control for a Limited Series or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

At the end of the special, Copperfield says that he hopes this will be the first of many magical journeys, announcing that the following year’s special will take place in Egypt; however the political situation in Egypt changed his plans[http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/19774204/ The Morning Herald, 8 August 1986, page 35]

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 2 Emmy Nominations: Outstanding Art Direction for a Variety or Music Program; Outstanding Technical Direction/Electronic Camera/Video Control for a Miniseries or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield IX: Escape From Alcatraz (March 13, 1987) (With special guest Ann Jillian)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield X: The Bermuda Triangle (March 12, 1988) (With special guest Lisa Hartman)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield XI: Explosive Encounter (March 3, 1989) (With special guest Emma Samms) Filmed at the Orange County Performing Arts Center in Orange County, California

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 2 Emmy Wins: Outstanding Costume Design for a Variety or Music Program; Outstanding Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Drama Series, Variety Series, Miniseries or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 2 Emmy Nomination: Outstanding Art Direction for a Variety or Music Program; Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Variety or Music Series or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield XII: The Niagara Falls Challenge (March 30, 1990) (With special guest Kim Alexis and Penn Teller) Filmed at the Orange County Performing Arts Center in Orange County, California

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield XIII: Mystery On The Orient Express (April 9, 1991) (With special guest Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour) Filmed at the Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center in Tampa Bay, Florida

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 4 Emmy Wins: Outstanding Achievement in Special Visual Effects; Outstanding Art Direction for a Variety or Music Program; Outstanding Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Drama Series, Variety Series, Miniseries or a Special; Outstanding Technical Direction/Camera/Video for a Miniseries or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Nomination: Outstanding Editing for a Miniseries or a Special – Multi-Camera Production

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield XIV: Flying – Live The Dream (March 31, 1992) (With special guest James Earl Jones and a special appearance by the late Orson Welles) Filmed at the Broward Center for the Performing Arts in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 3 Emmy Win: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Art Direction for a Variety or Music Program; Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Miniseries or a Special – Multi-Camera Production; Outstanding Individual Achievement in Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Drama Series, Variety Series, Miniseries or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield XV: Fires Of Passion (March 30, 1993) (With special guest Wayne Gretzky) Filmed in part at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas and the Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center in Tampa Bay, Florida

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# David Copperfield: 15 Years of Magic (May 12, 1994) (With special guest Claudia Schiffer, and appearances of various guests from previous specials via archive footage)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Win: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Miniseries or a Special – Multi-Camera Production

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

# The Magic of David Copperfield XVI: Unexplained Forces (May 1, 1995) – Filmed at the Tampa Bay Performing Arts Center in Tampa Bay, Florida

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 3 Emmy Wins: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Miniseries or a Special – Multi-Camera Production; Outstanding Individual Achievement in Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Drama Series, Variety Program, Miniseries or a Special; Outstanding Technical Direction/Camera/Video for a Miniseries or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 2 Emmy Nominations: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Art Direction for a Variety or Music Program; Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Variety or Music Series or a Special

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

Carson Daly was replaced by :nl:Hans Kazan|Hans Kazàn in the Dutch version and :it:Marco Berry|Marco Berry in the Italian version) – Filmed in a theatre in the round|surrounded stage in at the Mid-South Coliseum in Memphis, Tennessee and live tornado stunt performed at Pier 94 in New York City, NY[http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/2001-04-03-copperfield.htm Copperfield will fight ice with fire]

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Television specials

#* 1 Emmy Nomination: Outstanding Art Direction for a Variety or Music Program

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Worldwide tours

* David Copperfield: Radical New Illusions (1991–1992)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Worldwide tours

* David Copperfield: Journey of a Lifetime (a.k.a. U!) (1999–2000)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Worldwide tours

* David Copperfield: Unknown Dimension (a.k.a. Global Encounter) (2000–2001)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Worldwide tours

* David Copperfield: An Intimate Evening Of Grand Illusion (a.k.a. World of Wonders) (2003–present)

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Plans for new illusions

Copperfield declared that amongst the new illusions he plans to create, he wants to put a woman’s face on Mt. Rushmore, straighten the Leaning Tower of Pisa and even vanish the moon.

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Plans for new illusions

March 12, 1997[http://www.cape-coral-daily-breeze.com/page/content.detail/id/502348.html?nav=5006 David Copperfield coming to Barbara B

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Filmography

* Scrubs (TV series)|Scrubs (2002) TV – My Lucky Day (Scrubs episode)|My Lucky Day as himself

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Filmography

* Burt Wonderstone, (2013) as himself

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Notable tricks

* David Copperfield’s laser illusion|Laser illusion

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Notable tricks

* Vanishing the Statue of Liberty – April 8, 1983

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Notable tricks

* Walking Through the Great Wall of China

David Copperfield (illusionist) – Notable tricks

* Squeeze box (magic trick)|Squeeze box

Three-age system – From Evans’ gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic

On the other hand he includes it:In thus speaking of a bronze-using period I by no means wish to exclude the possible use of copper unalloyed with tin.

Three-age system – From Evans’ gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic

Evans goes into considerable detail tracing references to the metals in classical literature: Latin aer, aeris and Greek chalkós first for copper and then for bronze. He does not mention the adjective of aes, which is a?neus, nor is he interested in formulating New Latin words for the Copper Age, which is good enough for him and many English authors from then on. He offers literary proof that bronze had been in use before iron and copper before bronze.

Three-age system – From Evans’ gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic

In 1884 the center of archaeological interest shifted to Italy with the excavation of Remedello and the discovery of the Remedello culture by Gaetano Chierici

Three-age system – From Evans’ gratuitous Copper Age to the mythical chalcolithic

Shortly after, Eneolithic or Aeneolithic began turning up in scholarly English as a synonym for Copper Age

Hortense Powdermaker – Copper Town: Changing Africa

Copper Town: Changing Africa

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Research on copper alloys

In 2008, after evaluating a wide body of research mandated specifically by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), registration approvals were granted by EPA in 2008 granting that copper alloys kill more than 99.9% of MRSA within two hours.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Research on copper alloys

(2007), Antimicrobial Efficacies of Copper, Stainless Steel, Microban, BioCote and AgIon with MRSA at 20 °C, unpublished data At 20 °C, the drop-off in MRSA organisms on copper alloy C11000 is dramatic and almost complete (over 99.9% kill rate) within 75 minutes

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Research on copper alloys

Faster antimicrobial efficacies were associated with higher copper alloy content

Bedlington Terrier – Copper toxicosis

Bedlingtons also have a tendency to accumulate iron in the liver, but not nearly to the extent that they accumulate copper.

Cortisol – Copper

Cortisol stimulates many copper enzymes (often to 50% of their total potential), probably to increase copper availability for immune purposes. This includes lysyl oxidase, an enzyme that cross-links collagen and elastin. Especially valuable for immune response is cortisol’s stimulation of the superoxide dismutase, since this copper enzyme is almost certainly used by the body to permit superoxides to poison bacteria.

Cortisol – Copper

Cortisol causes an inverse four- or fivefold decrease of metallothionein (a copper storage protein) in mice; however, rodents do not synthesize cortisol themselves. This may be to furnish more copper for ceruloplasmin synthesis or to release free copper. Cortisol has an opposite effect on aminoisobuteric acid than on the other amino acids. If alpha-aminoisobuteric acid is used to transport copper through the cell wall, this anomaly might be explained.

Thunderbolt (Intel) – Copper vs. optical

Originally conceived as an optics|optical technology, Intel switched to electrical connections to reduce costs and to supply up to 10W of power to connected devices.

Thunderbolt (Intel) – Copper vs. optical

A cable was the first to be released, selling at around US dollar|US$300, they make the comparable per-meter price to be around the same to that of standard copper non-optical Thunderbolt cables, with the company planning on eventually releasing six sizes altogether, in lengths of , , , , , and (the optical USB 3.0 cables will have a maximum length of ).

Coppock curve

The ‘Coppock curve’ or ‘Coppock indicator’ is a technical analysis indicator for long-term stock market investors created by Edwin Coppock (economist)|E.S.C. Coppock, first published in Barron’s Magazine on October 15, 1962.

Coppock curve

The indicator is designed for use on a monthly time scale. It’s the sum of a 14-month rate of change (technical analysis)|rate of change and 11-month rate of change, smoothed by a 10-period moving average (finance)#Weighted moving average|weighted moving average.

Coppock curve

He asked the church bishops how long that normally took for people, their answer was 11 to 14 months and so he used those periods in his calculation.[http://www.finance-glossary.com/terms/Coppock-Indicator.htm?ginPtrCode=00000id=2262PopupMode= Coppock Indicator] at the Global-Investor Glossary

Coppock curve

A buy signal is generated when the indicator is below zero and turns upwards from a trough. No sell signals are generated (that not being its design). The indicator is trend-following, and based on averages, so by its nature it doesn’t pick a market bottom, but rather shows when a rally has become established.

Coppock curve

Coppock designed the indicator (originally called the Trendex Model) for the SP 500 index, and it’s been applied to similar stock indexes like the Dow Jones Industrial Average. It’s not regarded as well-suited to commodity markets, since bottoms there are more rounded than the spike lows found in stocks.[http://www.topline-charts.com/Encyclopedia/coppock_curve_interpretation.htm Coppock Curve Interpretation page] at Topline Investment Graphics

Coppock curve – Variations

Although designed for monthly use, a daily calculation over the same period can be made, converting the periods to 294 day and 231 day rate of changes, and a 210 day weighted moving average.[http://www.incrediblecharts.com/technical/coppock_indicator.htm Coppock Indicator page] at Incredible Charts

Coppock curve – Variations

This is because such signals could merely be a dip in a continuing bull market.[http://www.investorschronicle.co.uk/InvestmentGuides/Shares/article/20070906/ce752b0c-727f-11dc-baee-00144f2af8e8/ICCoppock-Sell-sell-sell.jsp IC/Coppock: Sell, sell, sell] from Investors Chronicle

Coppock curve – Variations

Mike Scott has determined that the weekly Coppock used in conjunction with Investor’s Business Daily Market Direction calls that a Coppock buy signal that occurs within plus or minus 2 weeks of an IBD Follow-Through Day correctly identifies successfully rallies 79% of the time in bull markets and 45% of the time in bear markets

Fibre optic – Advantages over copper wiring

;Broad bandwidth: A single optical fiber can carry 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or 90,000 TV channels.

Fibre optic – Advantages over copper wiring

;Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Light transmission through optical fibers is unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-conductive, so it does not act as an antenna to pick up electromagnetic signals. Information traveling inside the optical fiber is immune to electromagnetic interference, even electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear devices.

Fibre optic – Advantages over copper wiring

;Low attenuation loss over long distances: Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2dB/km in optical fiber cables, allowing transmission over long distances without the need for repeaters.

Fibre optic – Advantages over copper wiring

;Electrical insulator: Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems with Ground loop (electricity)|ground loops and conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on poles alongside high voltage power cables.

Fibre optic – Advantages over copper wiring

;Material cost and theft prevention: Conventional cable systems use large amounts of copper. In some places, this copper is a target for theft due to its value on the scrap market.

Cahokia – Copper workshop

Analysis of copper found during excavations showed that it had been Annealing (metallurgy)|annealed, a technique involving repeatedly heating and cooling the metal as it is worked, such as blacksmiths do with iron.

Cahokia – Copper workshop

Many of the stylistically related Mississippian copper plates such as the Wulfing cache from southeastern Missouri, some of the Etowah plates from Georgia, and many of the Spiro plates from Oklahoma are associated with the Greater Braden Style and are thought to have been made in Cahokia in the 13th century.Kelly et al

Copper Canyon

‘Copper Canyon’ (Spanish: ‘Barranca del Cobre’) is a group of canyons consisting of six distinct canyons in the Sierra Madre Occidental in the southwestern part of the Mexican state|state of Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua in Mexico. The overall canyon system is larger and portions are deeper than the Grand Canyon in Arizona.www.coppercanyoninsider.com

Copper Canyon

The canyons were formed by six rivers which drain the western side of the Sierra Tarahumara (a part of the Sierra Madre Occidental). All six rivers merge into the Rio Fuerte and empty into the Sea of Cortez. The walls of the canyon are a copper/green color which is where the name originates.

Copper Canyon – History

The Spain|Spanish arrived in the Copper Canyon area in the 17th century and encountered the indigenous locals throughout Chihuahua. For the Spanish, Mexico was a new land to explore for gold and silver and also to spread Christianity. The Spanish named the people they encountered Tarahumara, derived from the word Raramuri, which is what the indigenous people call themselves. Some scholars theorize that this word may mean ‘The running people’.

Copper Canyon – History

During the 17th century, silver was discovered by the Spaniards in the land of the Tarahumara tribe. Some were enslaved for mining efforts. There were small uprisings by the Tarahumara, but to little avail. They were eventually forced off of the more desirable lands and up into the canyon cliffs.

Copper Canyon – Climate

The alpine climate of the mountainous regions of Copper Canyon has moderate temperatures from October to November and March to April. The bottom of the canyons is humid and warm and remains that way throughout the year. During the warmest months, April through June, drought is a chronic problem with little rainfall until July when the rainy season begins.

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