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HTML element Presentation and behaviour
In keeping with the principle of separation of concerns, the function of HTML is primarily to add structural and semantic information to the raw text of a document. Presentation and behaviour are separate functions, which can be added as desired, ideally through links to external documents such as style sheets, graphics files, and scripts.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
This allows the document to be presented by different user agents according to their purposes and abilities; for example, a user agent can select an appropriate style sheet to present a document by displaying on a monitor, printing on paper, or to determine speech characteristics in an aural user agent. The structural and semantic functions of the markup remain identical in each case.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
Historically, user agents did not always support these features. In the 1990s, as a stop-gap, presentational elements were added to HTML, at the cost of creating problems for interoperability and user accessibility. This is now regarded as outmoded and has been superseded by style sheet-based design; most presentational elements are now deprecated.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
External image files are incorporated with the img or object elements. (With XHTML, the SVG language can also be used to write graphics within the document, though linking to external SVG files is generally simpler.) Where an image is not purely decorative, HTML allows replacement content with similar semantic value to be provided for non-visual user agents.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
An HTML document can also be extended through the use of scripts to provide additional behaviours beyond the abilities of HTML hyperlinks and forms.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
The elements style and script, with related HTML attributes, provide reference points in HTML markup for links to style sheets and scripts. They can also contain instructions directly.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
In the document head, script and style may either link to shared external documents, or contain embedded instructions. (The link element can also be used to link style sheets.)
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
The style attribute is valid in most document body elements for inclusion of inline style instructions.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
Event-handling attributes, which provide links to scripts, are optional in most elements.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
script can occur at any point in the document body.
HTML element Presentation and behaviour
For user agents which do not operate scripts, the noscript element provides alternative content where appropriate; however, it can only be used as a block-level element.
BT Group Behavioural targeting
The practice, known as “behavioural targeting” and condemned by critics as “data pimping”, came under intense fire from various internet communities and other interested-parties who believe that the interception of data without the consent of users and web site owners is illegal under UK law (RIPA)
BT Group Behavioural targeting
It’s mine – you can’t have it. If you want to use it for something, then you have to negotiate with me. I have to agree, I have to understand what I’m getting in return. I myself feel that it is very important that my ISP supplies internet to my house like the water company supplies water to my house. It supplies connectivity with no strings attached. My ISP doesn’t control which websites I go to, it doesn’t monitor which websites I go to.
C syntax Undefined behavior
Undefined behavior
C syntax Undefined behavior
An aspect of the C standard (not unique to C) is that the behavior of certain code is said to be “undefined”. In practice, this means that the program produced from this code can do anything, from working as the programmer intended, to crashing every time it is run.
C syntax Undefined behavior
For example, the following code produces undefined behavior, because the variable b is modified more than once with no intervening sequence point:
C syntax Undefined behavior
Because there is no sequence point between the modifications of b in “b++ + b++”, it is possible to perform the evaluation steps in more than one order, resulting in an ambiguous statement. This can be fixed by rewriting the code to insert a sequence point in order to enforce an unambiguous behavior, for example:
Leadership Behavioral and style theories
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles. David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership takes a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.
Leadership Behavioral and style theories
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
Leadership Behavioral and style theories
The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders’ concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.
Leadership Sex differences in leadership behavior
Another factor that covaries with leadership style is whether the person is male or female
Marketing Herd behavior
The Economist reported a recent conference in Rome on the subject of the simulation of adaptive human behavior
Marketing Buying behavior
A marketing firm must ascertain the nature of customers’ buying behavior if it is to market its product properly. In order to entice and persuade a consumer to buy a product, marketers try to determine the behavioral process of how a given product is purchased. Buying behavior is usually split into two prime strands, whether selling to the consumer, known as business-to-consumer (B2C), or to another business, known as business-to-business (B2B).
Marketing B2C buying behavior
This mode of behavior concerns consumers and their purchase of a given product
Marketing B2B buying behavior
Relates to organizational/industrial buying behavior. Business buy either wholesale from other businesses or directly from the manufacturer in contracts or agreements. B2B marketing involves one business marketing a product or service to another business. B2C and B2B behavior are not precise terms, as similarities and differences exist, with some key differences listed below:
Marketing B2B buying behavior
In a straight re-buy, the fourth, fifth and sixth stages are omitted. In a modified re-buy scenario, the fifth and sixth stages are precluded. In a new buy, all stages are conducted.
Behavioral targeting
Behavioral Targeting refers to a range of technologies and techniques used by online website publishers and advertisers which allows them to increase the effectiveness of their campaigns by capturing data generated by website and landing page visitors. When it is done without the knowledge of users, it may be considered a breach of browser security and illegal by many countries’ privacy, data protection and consumer protection laws.
Behavioral targeting
When a consumer visits a web site, the pages they visit, the amount of time they view each page, the links they click on, the searches they make and the things that they interact with, allow sites to collect that data, and other factors, create a ‘profile’ that links to that visitor’s web browser
Behavioral targeting
Behavioral marketing can be used on its own or in conjunction with other forms of targeting based on factors like geography, demographics or contextual web page content. It’s worth noting that many practitioners also refer to this process as “Audience Targeting”.
Behavioral targeting Onsite Behavioral Targeting
Behavioral targeting techniques may also be applied to any online property on the premise that it either improves the visitor experience or it benefits the online property, typically through increased conversion rates or increased spending levels
Behavioral targeting Onsite Behavioral Targeting
When it comes to the practical problem of successfully delivering the profiles correctly this is usually achieved by either using a specialist content behavioral platform or by bespoke software development
Behavioral targeting Onsite Behavioral Targeting
Again, this behavioral data can be combined with known demographic data and a visitor’s past purchase history in order to produce a greater degree of data points that can be used for targeting.
Behavioral targeting Onsite Behavioral Targeting
Onsite behavioral targeting requires relatively high level of traffic before statistical confidence levels can be reached regarding the probability of a particular offer generating a conversion from a user with a set behavioral profile
Behavioral targeting Network Behavioral Targeting
Behavioral targeting allows them to be slightly more specific about this.
Behavioral targeting Privacy and Security Concerns
This is a controversy that the behavioral targeting industry is trying to contain through education, advocacy and product constraints to keep all information non-personally identifiable or to obtain permission from end-users
Behavioral targeting Privacy and Security Concerns
The European Commission (via commissioner Meglena Kuneva) has also raised a number of concerns related to online data collection (of personal data), profiling and behavioral targeting, and is looking for “enforcing existing regulation”.
Behavioral targeting Privacy and Security Concerns
In October 2009 it was reported that a recent survey carried out by University of Pennsylvania and the Berkeley Center for Law and Technology found that a large majority of US internet users rejected the use of behavioral advertising. Several research efforts by academicians and others have demonstrated that data that supposedly anonymized can be used to identify real individuals.
Behavioral targeting Privacy and Security Concerns
In March 2011, it was reported that the online ad industry would begin working with the Council of Better Business Bureaus to start policing itself as part of its program to monitor and regulate how marketers track consumers online, also known as behavioral advertising.
Behavioral targeting Case law
FTC regulation of behavioral advertising
Hierarchy Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity
In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.
Hierarchy Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity
In all of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of ‘compositional’ significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts.There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God)
Hierarchy Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity
In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced
Hierarchy Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity
Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s
Complexity Complex behaviour
The behavior of a complex system is often said to be due to emergence and self-organization. Chaos theory has investigated the sensitivity of systems to variations in initial conditions as one cause of complex behaviour. Complex behavior can be caused by multitasking of brain.The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
Crowd manipulation – Crowds and their behavior
The word “crowd”, according to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, refers to both “a large number of persons especially when collected together” (as in a crowded shopping mall) and “a group of people having something in common [as in a habit, interest, or occupation].” Philosopher G.A
Crowd manipulation – Crowds and their behavior
Crowds may be classified according to the degree of definiteness and constancy of this consciousness. When it is very definite and constant the crowd may be called homogeneous, and when not so definite and constant, heterogeneous. All mobs belong to the homogeneous class, but not all homogeneous crowds are mobs. … Whether a given crowd belong to the one group or the other may be a debatable question, and the same crowd may imperceptibly pass from one to the other.
Crowd manipulation – Crowds and their behavior
In a 2001 study, the Institute for Non-Lethal Defense Studies at Pennsylvania State University defined a crowd more specifically as “a gathering of a multitude of individuals and small groups that have temporarily assembled. These small groups are usually comprised of friends, family members, or acquaintances.”
Crowd manipulation – Crowds and their behavior
A modern model, based on the “individualistic” concept of crowd behavior developed by Floyd Allport in 1924, is the Elaborated Social Identity Model (ESIM).
Corporate censorship – Behaviour
It is a regular occurrence for players to be fined for cursing at referees and making obscene gestures.
Consumer behaviour
Consumer behaviour
Consumer behaviour
It studies characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics and behavioral variables in an attempt to understand people’s wants
Consumer behaviour
Relationship marketing is an influential asset for customer behavior analysis as it has a keen interest in the re-discovery of the true meaning of marketing through the re-affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer
Consumer behaviour
Each method for vote counting is assumed as social function but if Arrow’s possibility theorem is used for a social function, social welfare function is achieved
Consumer behaviour – Black box model
The black box model is related to the black box theory of behaviourism, where the focus is not set on the processes inside a consumer, but the relation between the stimuli and the response of the consumer
Consumer behaviour – Black box model
Environmental factors Buyer’s black box Buyer’s response
Consumer behaviour – Black box model
Marketing Stimuli Environmental Stimuli Buyer Characteristics Decision Process
Consumer behaviour – Black box model
Post-purchase behaviour Product choice
Consumer behaviour – Black box model
The black box model considers the buyer’s response as a result of a conscious, rational decision process, in which it is assumed that the buyer has recognized the problem. However, in reality many decisions are not made in awareness of a determined problem by the consumer.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
Once the consumer has recognised a problem, they search for information on products and services that can solve that problem. Belch and Belch (2007) explain that consumers undertake both an internal (memory) and an external search. Sources of information include personal sources and experience, and commercial and public sources.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
The relevant internal psychological process associated with information search is perception, which can be defined as “the process by which an individual receives, selects, organises, and interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world”. Consumers’ tendency to search for information on goods and services makes it possible for researchers to forecast the purchasing plans of consumers using brief descriptions of the products of interest.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
Selective exposure: consumers select which promotional messages they will expose themselves to.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
Selective attention: consumers select which promotional messages they will pay attention to.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
Selective comprehension: consumer interpret messages in line with their beliefs, attitudes, motives and experiences.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
Selective retention: consumers remember messages that are more meaningful or important to them.
Consumer behaviour – Information search
The implications of this process help to develop an effective promotional strategy, and suggest which sources of information are more effective for the brand.
Consumer behaviour – Evaluation of alternatives
At this time the consumer compares the brands and products that are in their evoked set
Consumer behaviour – Purchase decision
Once the alternatives have been evaluated, the consumer is ready to make a purchase decision
Consumer behaviour – Purchase decision
There are 5 stages of a consumer buying process they are: The problem recognition stage, meaning the identification of something a consumer needs
Consumer behaviour – Postpurchase evaluation
The EKB (Engel, Kollat, Blackwell) model was further developed by Rice (1993) which suggested there should be a feedback loop, Foxall (2005) further suggests the importance of the post purchase evaluation and that it is key because of its influences on future purchase patterns.
Consumer behaviour – Other influences
Consumer behaviour is influenced by internal conditions such as demographics, psychographics (lifestyle), personality, motivation, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. Psychological factors include an individuals motivation, perception, attitude and belief, while personal factors include income level, personality, age, occupation and lifestyle.
Consumer behaviour – Other influences
Congruence between personality and the way a persuasive message is framed (i.e., aligning the message framing with the recipient’s personality profile) may play an important role in ensuring the success of that message
Consumer behaviour – Other influences
Behaviour can also be affected by external influences, such as culture, sub-culture, locality, royalty, ethnicity, family, social class, past experience reference groups, lifestyle, market mix factors.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Blackwell, Miniard and Engel (2006). Consumer Behaviour (10th Ed.). Thomson Learning.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Deaton, Angus; Muellbauer, John, Economics and consumer behavior, Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-521-22850-6
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Foxall, G. (2005.) Understanding Consumer Choice. Baingstoke. Palgrave Macmillian.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Howard, J., Sheth, J.N. (1968), Theory of Buyer Behavior, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Kardes, Frank R.; Cronley, Maria L.; Cline, Thomas W., Consumer Behavior, Mason, OH : South-Western, Cengage Learning, 2011. ISBN 978-0-538-74540-6
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Laermer, Richard; Simmons, Mark, Punk Marketing, New York : Harper Collins, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-115110-1 (Review of the book by Marilyn Scrizzi, in Journal of Consumer Marketing 24(7), 2007)
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Loudon, D.L. (1988), Consumer Behavior: Concepts and Applications, McGraw Hill, London.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Packard, Vance, The Hidden Persuaders, New York, D. McKay Co., 1957.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Schiffman, L.G. (1993), Consumer Behavior, Prentice Hall International, London.
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Shell, Ellen Ruppel, Cheap: The High Cost of Discount Culture, New York : Penguin Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59420-215-5
Consumer behaviour – Further reading
Solomon, M.R. (1994), Consumer Behavior, Allyn & Bacon, London.
Business-to-business – Buying behaviour in a B2B environment
Some characteristics of organizational buying / selling behaviour in detail:
Business-to-business – Buying behaviour in a B2B environment
For consumer brands the buyer is an individual. In B2B there are usually committees of people in an organization and each of the members may have different attitudes towards any brand. In addition, each party involved may have different reasons for buying or not buying a particular brand.
Business-to-business – Buying behaviour in a B2B environment
Since there are more people involved in the decision making process and technical details may have to be discussed in length, the decision-making process for B2B products is usually much longer than in B2C.
Business-to-business – Buying behaviour in a B2B environment
Companies seek long term relationships as any experiment with a different brand will have impacts on the entire business. Brand loyalty is therefore much higher than in consumer goods markets.
Business-to-business – Buying behaviour in a B2B environment
While consumer goods usually cost little in comparison to B2B goods, the selling process involves high costs. Not only is it required to meet the buyer numerous times, but the buyer may ask for prototypes, samples and mock ups. Such detailed assessment serves the purpose of eliminating the risk of buying the wrong product or service.
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
A message cannot be sent without unsubscribe option.
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
A message should contain at least one sentence.
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
national security messages.
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
There are no restrictions against a company emailing its existing customers or anyone who has inquired about its products or services, even if these individuals have not given permission, as these messages are classified as “relationship” messages under CAN-SPAM. But when sending unsolicited commercial emails, it must be stated that the email is an advertisement or a marketing solicitation. Note that recipients who have signed up to receive commercial messages from you are exempt from this rule.
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
If a user opts out, a sender has ten days to cease sending and can only use that email address for compliance purposes. The legislation also prohibits the sale or other transfer of an e-mail address after an opt-out request. The law also requires that the unsubscribe mechanism must be able to process opt-out requests for at least 30 days after the transmission of the original message.
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
Use of automated means to register for multiple e-mail accounts from which to send spam compound other violations. It prohibits sending sexually-oriented spam without the label later determined by the FTC of “SEXUALLY EXPLICIT.” This label replaced the similar state labeling requirements of “ADV:ADLT” or “ADLT.”
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 – Sending behavior compliance
CAN-SPAM makes it a misdemeanor to send spam with falsified header information. A host of other common spamming practices can make a CAN-SPAM violation an “aggravated offense,” including harvesting, dictionary attacks, IP address spoofing, hijacking computers through Trojan horses or worms, or using open mail relays for the purpose of sending spam.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
Some features which differ notably from languages such as C or Perl:
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
The language syntax is sensitive to the capitalization of identifiers, in all cases treating capitalized variables as constants. Class and module names are constants and refer to objects derived from Class and Module.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
The sigils $ and @ do not indicate variable data type as in Perl, but rather function as scope resolution operators.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
Floating point literals must have digits both side of the decimal point: neither .5 nor 2. are valid floating point literals, but 0.5 and 2.0 are.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
(In Ruby, integer literals are objects that can have methods apply to them, so requiring a digit after a decimal point helps to clarify whether 1.e5 should be parsed analogously to 1.to_f or as the exponential-format floating literal 1.0e5. The reason for requiring a digit before the decimal point is less clear; it might relate either to method invocation again, or perhaps to the .. and … operators, for example in the fragment 0.1…3.)
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
Boolean non-boolean datatypes are permitted in boolean contexts (unlike in e.g. Smalltalk and Java), but their mapping to boolean values differs markedly from some other languages: 0 and “empty” (e.g. empty list, string or associative array) all evaluate to true, thus changing the meaning of some common idioms in related or similar languages such as Lisp, Perl and Python.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
A consequence of this rule is that Ruby methods by convention — for example, regular-expression searches — return numbers, strings, lists, or other non-false values on success, but nil on failure.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
Versions prior to 1.9 use plain integers to represent single characters, much like C. This may cause surprises when slicing strings: “abc”[0] yields 97 (the ASCII code of the first character in the string); to obtain “a” use “abc”[0,1] (a substring of length 1) or “abc”[0].chr.
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
(Matsumoto has expressed a desire to remove the special behavior of begin statement end until expression, but it still exists as of Ruby 2.0.)
Ruby (programming language) – Deviations from behavior elsewhere
Because constants are references to objects, changing what a constant refers to generates a warning, but modifying the object itself does not. For example, Greeting << " world!" if Greeting == "Hello" does not generate an error or warning. This is similar to final variables in Java or a const pointer to a non-const object in C++, but Ruby provides the functionality to "freeze" an object, unlike Java. Ruby (programming language) - Deviations from behavior elsewhere The usual operators for conditional expressions, and and or, do not follow the normal rules of precedence: and does not bind tighter than or. Ruby also has expression operators || and && that work as expected. Ruby (programming language) - Deviations from behavior elsewhere A list of so-called gotchas may be found in Hal Fulton's book The Ruby Way, 2nd ed (ISBN 0-672-32884-4), Section 1.5. A similar list in the 1st edition pertained to an older version of Ruby (version 1.6), some problems of which have been fixed in the meantime. For example, retry now works with while, until, and for, as well as with iterators. CentOS - Releases having no upstream equivalents LiveCD and LiveDVD images are containing a bootable compressed file system, created by a set of custom scripts using a kickstart configuration file. CentOS - Releases having no upstream equivalents These live images can be also installed to hard disk, thus obtaining a fully functional CentOS installation. The set of packages installed that way on a hard disk can not be adjusted during the installation, as that is a simple transfer of the image existing on CD/DVD, to a hard disk. After booting from hard disk, yum can be used for adding or removing packages. CentOS - Releases having no upstream equivalents MinimalCD images are containing a minimum of packages needed to have a functional installation, with no compromises made regarding security or network usability. These minimal images use the standard CentOS installer, with all of its regular features minus the selection of packages. Yum can be used after installation for adding or removing packages. Make (software) - Behavior Make is typically used to build executable programs and libraries from source code Make (software) - Behavior Make is invoked with a list of target file names to build as command-line arguments: Make (software) - Behavior Without arguments, Make builds the first target that appears in its makefile, which is traditionally a symbolic "phony" target named all. Make (software) - Behavior Make decides whether a target needs to be regenerated by comparing file modification times General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems In Microsoft Windows, the general protection fault presents with varied language, depending on product version: General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems Unrecoverable Application Error. (Windows 3.0) General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems [Program Name] has caused a General Protection Fault in module [module name] at [memory address]. (Windows 3.1 and 3.1x) General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems This program has performed an illegal operation and will be shut down. (Windows 9x & Windows NT 4.0) General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems [Program Name] has caused an error in [Module Name]. [Program Name] will now close. (Windows Me) General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems [Program Name/Description] has encountered a problem and needs to close. We are sorry for the inconvenience. (Windows XP) General protection fault - Behaviour in specific operating systems In systems such as Unix and Linux, the errors are reported separately (e.g. segmentation fault for ). Darlington transistor - Behavior A Darlington pair is like a set of feeders with a high current gain (approximately the product of the gains of the two transistors). In fact, integrated devices have three leads (B, C and E), broadly equivalent to those of a standard transistor. Darlington transistor - Behavior A general relation between the compound current gain and the individual gains is given by: Darlington transistor - Behavior If ?1 and ?2 are high enough (hundreds), this relation can be approximated with: Darlington transistor - Behavior Darlington pairs are available as integrated packages or can be made from two discrete transistors; Q1 (the left-hand transistor in the diagram) can be a low power type, but normally Q2 (on the right) will need to be high power. The maximum collector current IC(max) of the pair is that of Q2. A typical integrated power device is the 2N6282, which includes a switch-off resistor and has a current gain of 2400 at IC=10A. Darlington transistor - Behavior A Darlington pair can be sensitive enough to respond to the current passed by skin contact even at safe voltages. Thus it can form the input stage of a touch-sensitive switch. Darlington transistor - Behavior A typical modern device has a current gain of 1000 or more, so that only a small base current is needed to make the pair switch on. However, this high current gain comes with several drawbacks. Darlington transistor - Behavior The basic Darlington transistor circuit is formed by taking the emitter of the input transistor and connecting it such that its emitter drives the base of the second and then connecting both collectors together. Capuchin monkey - Behavior Like most New World monkeys, capuchins are diurnal and arboreal Capuchin monkey - Behavior The diet of the capuchins is more varied than other monkeys in the family Cebidae. They are omnivores, eating not only fruits, nuts, seeds, and buds, but also insects, spiders, birds' eggs, and small vertebrates. Capuchins living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones. Health psychology - Understanding behavioral and contextual factors Health psychologists conduct research to identify behaviors and experiences that promote health, give rise to illness, and influence the effectiveness of health care Health psychology - Understanding behavioral and contextual factors Health psychology is also concerned with contextual factors, including economic, cultural, community, social, and lifestyle factors that influence health Health psychology - Understanding behavioral and contextual factors Health psychologists also aim to change health behaviors for the dual purpose of helping people stay healthy and helping patients adhere to disease treatment regimens (also see Health Action Process Approach). Health psychologists employ cognitive behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis (also see behavior modification) for that purpose. Modeling language - Behavioral Behavioral languages are designed to describe the observable behavior of complex systems consisting of components that execute concurrently. These languages focus on the description of key concepts such as: concurrency, nondeterminism, synchronization, and communication. The semantic foundations of Behavioral languages are process calculus or process algebra. Web page - Dynamic behavior Client-side computer code such as JavaScript or code implementing Ajax techniques can be provided either embedded in the HTML of a web page or, like CSS stylesheets, as separate, linked downloads specified in the HTML. These scripts may run on the client computer, if the user allows. Comparative psychology - Disorders of animal behavior Today an animal's psychological constitution is recognized by veterinary surgeons as an important part of its living conditions in domestication or captivity. Comparative psychology - Disorders of animal behavior Common causes of disordered behavior in captive or pet animals are lack of stimulation, inappropriate stimulation, or overstimulation. These conditions can lead to disorders, unpredictable and unwanted behavior, and sometimes even physical symptoms and diseases. For example, rats who are exposed to loud music for a long period will ultimately develop unwanted behaviors that have been compared with human psychosis, like biting their owners. Comparative psychology - Disorders of animal behavior The way dogs behave when understimulated is widely believed to depend on the breed as well as on the individual animal's character. For example, huskies have been known to completely ruin gardens and houses if they are not allowed enough activity. Dogs are also prone to psychological damage if they are subjected to violence. If they are treated very badly, they may become dangerous. Comparative psychology - Disorders of animal behavior The systematic study of disordered animal behavior draws on research in comparative psychology, including the early work on conditioning and instrumental learning, but also on ethological studies of natural behavior. However, at least in the case of familiar domestic animals, it also draws on the accumulated experience of those who have worked closely with the animals. Environmental psychology - Behavior settings One of the first insightful explanations on why groups tend to be less satisfying for their members as they increase in size, their studies illustrated that large schools had a similar number of behavior settings to that of small schools Environmental psychology - Behavior settings “The hybrid, eco-behavioral character of behavior settings appear to present Midwest’s inhabitants with no difficulty; nouns that combine milieu and standing behavior are common, e.g Environmental psychology - Behavior settings Barker spent his career expanding on what he called ecological psychology, identifying these behavior settings, and publishing accounts such as One Boy's Day (1952) and Midwest and Its Children (1955.) Middle Paleolithic - Origin of behavioral modernity The earliest evidence of behavioral modernity first appears during the Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age; undisputed evidence of behavioral modernity, however, only becomes common during the following Upper Paleolithic period. Middle Paleolithic - Origin of behavioral modernity Middle Paleolithic burials at sites such as Krapina, Croatia (c Middle Paleolithic - Origin of behavioral modernity Also the earliest undisputed evidence of artistic expression during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave in the form of bracelets, beads, art rock, ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual, though earlier examples of artistic expression such as the Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia may have been produced by Acheulean tool users such as Homo erectus prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period Middle Paleolithic - Origin of behavioral modernity In addition to developing other advanced cultural traits such as religion and art, humans also first began to take part in long distance trade between groups for rare commodities (such as ochre, which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual) and raw materials during the Middle Paleolithic as early as 120,000 years ago Experimental psychology - Behavioral Psychology It was experiments like these that helped the science of behavior become what it is today. Industrial and organizational psychology - Group behavior Group behavior Industrial and organizational psychology - Group behavior Group behavior is the interaction between individuals of a collective and the processes such as opinions, attitudes, growth, feedback loops, and adaptations that occur and change as a result of this interaction. The interactions serve to fulfill some need satisfaction of an individual who is part of the collective and helps to provide a basis for his interaction with specific members of the group. Industrial and organizational psychology - Group behavior A specific area of research in group behavior is the dynamics of teams. Team effectiveness refers to the system of getting people in a company or institution to work together effectively. The idea behind team effectiveness is that a group of people working together can achieve much more than if the individuals of the team were working on their own. Industrial and organizational psychology - Productive behavior Jex & Britt outline three different forms of productive behavior that industrial–organizational psychologists frequently evaluate in organizations: job performance; organizational citizenship behavior; and innovation. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Dennis Organ is often thought of as the father of OCB research and defines OCBs as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization." Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into one of the following five categories: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Researchers have adapted, elaborated, or otherwise changed Organ's (1988) five OCB categories, but they remain popular today. The categories and their descriptions are as follows: Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Sometimes referred to as "prosocial behavior" altruistic OCBs include helping behaviors in the workplace such as volunteering to assist a coworker on a project. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior These behaviors can be seen when an employee exhibits basic consideration for others. Examples of courteous OCBs include "checking up" on coworkers to see how they are doing and notifying coworkers of commitments that may cause you to be absent from work. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Unlike other forms of OCBs, sportsmanship involves not engaging in certain behaviors, such as whining and complaining about minor issues or tough work assignments. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Conscientiousness is basically defined as self-discipline and performing tasks beyond the minimum requirements. Conscientious OCBs involve planning ahead, cleanliness, not "slacking off," adhering to the rules, punctuality, and being an overall good citizen in the workplace. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Civic virtue differs from other OCBs because the target of the behavior is the group or organization as a whole, rather than an individual coworker. Civic virtue OCBs include being a good representative of the organization and supporting the organization, especially in its efforts outside of its major business objectives. Examples of civic virtue OCBs are participating in charitable functions held by the organization and defending or otherwise speaking well of the organization. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior OCBs are also categorized using other methods Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior Jex & Britt offer three explanations as to why employees engage in organizational citizenship behavior. One relates to positive affect; for example, an overall positive mood tends to change the frequency of helping behavior to a higher rate. This theory stems from a history of numerous studies indicating that positive mood increases the frequency of helping and prosocial behaviors. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior A second explanation, which stems from equity theory, is that employees reciprocate fair treatment that they received from the organization. Equity theory researchers found that certain forms of fairness or justice predict OCB better than others. For example, Jex & Britt mention research that indicates that interactional justice is a better predictor than procedural justice, which is in turn a better predictor than distributive justice. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior The key difference between this view and those mentioned by Jex & Britt is that the intended beneficiary of the behavior is the individual who engages in it, rather than another individual, the organization, or the supervisor. Industrial and organizational psychology - Organizational citizenship behavior For example, Eran Vigoda-Gadot suggests that some, but not all, OCBs may be performed voluntarily out of goodwill, but many may be more involuntary in nature and "may arise from coercive managerial strategies or coercive social pressure by powerful peers." As mentioned previously, Vigoda-Gadot categorizes these behaviors in a separate category of OCBs as "compulsory OCBs" or CCBs, which he suggests are a form of "abusive supervision" and will result in poorer organizational performance, similar to what has been seen in other research on abusive supervision and coercive persuasion. Industrial and organizational psychology - Counterproductive work behavior Counterproductive work behavior Industrial and organizational psychology - Counterproductive work behavior For instance, an employee who steals from the company may do so because of lax supervision (environment) and underlying psychopathology (person) that work in concert to result in the counterproductive behavior. Industrial and organizational psychology - Counterproductive work behavior The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance, absenteeism, job turnover, and accidents. Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including theft, violence, substance use, and sexual harassment. Capacitor - Non-ideal behavior Finally, combined parasitic effects such as inherent inductance, resistance, or dielectric losses can exhibit non-uniform behavior at variable frequencies of operation. Chat room - Rules of behavior Chat rooms usually have stringent rules that they require users to follow in order to maintain integrity and safety for their users Chat room - Rules of behavior Sometimes chat room venues are moderated either by limiting who is allowed to speak (not common), by having comments be approved by moderators (often presented as asking questions of a guest or celebrity), or by having moderation volunteers patrol the venue watching for disruptive or otherwise undesirable behaviour. Behavioral neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Most typically, experiments in behavioral neuroscience involve non-human animal models (such as rats and mice, and non-human primates) which have implications for better understanding of human pathology and therefore contribute to evidence-based practice. Behavioral neuroscience - History Descartes also elaborated on a theory in which the pneumatics of bodily fluids could explain reflexes and other motor behavior Behavioral neuroscience - History Other philosophers also helped give birth to psychology. One of the earliest textbooks in the new field, The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890), argues that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology: Behavioral neuroscience - History “ Bodily experiences, therefore, and more particularly brain-experiences, must take a place amongst those conditions of the mental life of which Psychology need take account. The spiritualist and the associationist must both be 'cerebralists,' to the extent at least of admitting that certain peculiarities in the way of working of their own favorite principles are explicable only by the fact that the brain laws are a codeterminant of their result. Behavioral neuroscience - History Our first conclusion, then, is that a certain amount of brain-physiology must be presupposed or included in Psychology. Behavioral neuroscience - History The emergence of both psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate sciences can be traced from the emergence of physiology from anatomy, particularly neuroanatomy Behavioral neuroscience - History In the announcement of that journal, Dunlap writes that the journal will publish research "...bearing on the interconnection of mental and physiological functions", which describes the field of behavioral neuroscience even in its modern sense. Behavioral neuroscience - Relationship to other fields of psychology and biology Behavioral neuroscience also has paradigmatic and methodological similarities to neuropsychology, which relies heavily on the study of the behavior of humans with nervous system dysfunction (i.e., a non-experimentally based biological manipulation). Behavioral neuroscience - Relationship to other fields of psychology and biology Synonyms for behavioral neuroscience include biopsychology and psychobiology. Physiological psychology is another term often used synonymously with behavioral neuroscience, though authors would make physiological psychology a subfield of behavioral neuroscience, with an appropriately narrow definition. Behavioral neuroscience - Research methods The distinguishing characteristic of a behavioral neuroscience experiment is that either the independent variable of the experiment is biological, or some dependent variable is biological. In other words, the nervous system of the organism under study is permanently or temporarily altered, or some aspect of the nervous system is measured (usually to be related to a behavioral variable). Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Lesions - A classic method in which a brain-region of interest is naturally or intentionally destroyed to observe any resulting changes such as degraded or enhanced performance on some behavioral measure. Lesions can be placed with relatively high accuracy thanks to a variety of brain 'atlases' which provide a map of brain regions in 3-dimensional stereotactic coordinates. Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Surgical lesions - Neural tissue is destroyed by removing it surgically. Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Electrolytic lesions - Neural tissue is destroyed through the application of electrical shock trauma. Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Chemical lesions - Neural tissue is destroyed by the infusion of a neurotoxin. Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Temporary lesions - Neural tissue is temporarily disabled by cooling or by the use of anesthetics such as tetrodotoxin. Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Transcranial magnetic stimulation - A new technique usually used with human subjects in which a magnetic coil applied to the scalp causes unsystematic electrical activity in nearby cortical neurons which can be experimentally analyzed as a functional lesion. Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Psychopharmacological manipulations - A chemical receptor antagonist induces neural activity by interfering with neurotransmission Behavioral neuroscience - Disabling or decreasing neural function Optogenetic inhibition - A light activated inhibitory protein is expressed in cells of interest Behavioral neuroscience - Enhancing neural function Electrical stimulation - A classic method in which neural activity is enhanced by application of a small electrical current (too small to cause significant cell death). Behavioral neuroscience - Enhancing neural function Psychopharmacological manipulations - A chemical receptor agonist facilitates neural activity by enhancing or replacing endogenous neurotransmitters. Agonists can be delivered systemically (such as by intravenous injection) or locally (intracerebrally) during a surgical procedure. Behavioral neuroscience - Enhancing neural function Transcranial magnetic stimulation - In some cases (for example, studies of motor cortex), this technique can be analyzed as having a stimulatory effect (rather than as a functional lesion). Behavioral neuroscience - Enhancing neural function Optogenetic excitation - A light activated excitatory protein is expressed in select cells. Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), a light activated cation channel, was the first bacterial opsin shown to excite neurons in response to light, though a number of new excitatory optogenetic tools have now been generated by improving and imparting novel properties to ChR2 Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Optical techniques - Optical methods for recording neuronal activity rely on methods that modify the optical properties of neurons in response to the cellular events associated with action potentials or neurotransmitter release. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Voltage sensitive dyes (VSDs) were among the earliest method for optically detecting action potentials. VSDs commonly become fluorescent in response to a neuron's change in voltage, rendering individual action potentials detectable. Genetically encoded voltage sensitive fluorescent proteins have also been developed. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Calcium imaging relies on dyes or genetically encoded proteins that fluoresce upon binding to the calcium that is transiently present during an action potential. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Synapto-pHluorin is a technique that relies on a fusion protein that combines a synaptic vesicle membrane protein and a pH sensitive fluorescent protein. Upon synaptic vesicle release, the chimeric protein is exposed to the higher pH of the synaptic cleft, causing a measurable change in fluorescence. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Single-unit recording - A method whereby an electrode is introduced into the brain of a living animal to detect electrical activity that is generated by the neurons adjacent to the electrode tip. Normally this is performed with sedated animals but sometimes it is performed on awake animals engaged in a behavioral event, such as a thirsty rat whisking a particular sandpaper grade previously paired with water in order to measure the corresponding patterns of neuronal firing at the decision point. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Multielectrode recording - The use of a bundle of fine electrodes to record the simultaneous activity of up to hundreds of neurons. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity fMRI - Functional magnetic resonance imaging, a technique most frequently applied on human subjects, in which changes in cerebral blood flow can be detected in an MRI apparatus and are taken to indicate relative activity of larger scale brain regions (i.e., on the order of hundreds of thousands of neurons). Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Electroencephalography - Or EEG; and the derivative technique of event-related potentials, in which scalp electrodes monitor the average activity of neurons in the cortex (again, used most frequently with human subjects). Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity Functional neuroanatomy - A more complex counterpart of phrenology. The expression of some anatomical marker is taken to reflect neural activity. For example, the expression of immediate early genes is thought to be caused by vigorous neural activity. Likewise, the injection of 2-deoxyglucose prior to some behavioral task can be followed by anatomical localization of that chemical; it is taken up by neurons that are electrically active. Behavioral neuroscience - Measuring neural activity MEG - Magnetoencephalography shows the functioning of the human brain through the measurement of electromagnetic activity. Measuring the magnetic fields created by the electric current flowing within the neurons identifies brain activity associated with various human functions in real time, with millimeter spatial accuracy. Clinicians can noninvasively obtain data to help them assess neurological disorders and plan surgical treatments. Behavioral neuroscience - Genetic manipulations QTL mapping - The influence of a gene in some behavior can be statistically inferred by studying inbred strains of some species, most commonly mice. The recent sequencing of the genome of many species, most notably mice, has facilitated this technique. Behavioral neuroscience - Genetic manipulations Selective breeding - Organisms, often mice, may be bred selectively among inbred strains to create a recombinant congenic strain. This might be done to isolate an experimentally interesting stretch of DNA derived from one strain on the background genome of another strain to allow stronger inferences about the role of that stretch of DNA. Behavioral neuroscience - Genetic manipulations Genetic engineering - The genome may also be experimentally-manipulated; for example, knockout mice can be engineered to lack a particular gene, or a gene may be expressed in a strain which does not normally do so (the 'transgenic'). Advanced techniques may also permit the expression or suppression of a gene to occur by injection of some regulating chemical. Behavioral neuroscience - Limitations and advantages Different manipulations have advantages and limitations Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience In general, behavioral neuroscientists study similar themes and issues as academic psychologists, though limited by the need to use nonhuman animals. As a result, the bulk of literature in behavioral neuroscience deals with mental processes and behaviors that are shared across different animal models such as: Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Motivated behavior (hunger, thirst, sex) Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience However, with increasing technical sophistication and with the development of more precise noninvasive methods that can be applied to human subjects, behavioral neuroscientists are beginning to contribute to other classical topic areas of psychology, philosophy, and linguistics, such as: Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience has also had a strong history of contributing to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that fall under the purview of clinical psychology and biological psychopathology (also known as abnormal psychology). Although animal models do not exist for all mental illnesses, the field has contributed important therapeutic data on a variety of conditions, including: Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Parkinson's Disease, a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's motor skills and speech. Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Huntington's Disease, a rare inherited neurological disorder whose most obvious symptoms are abnormal body movements and a lack of coordination. It also affects a number of mental abilities and some aspects of personality. Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Alzheimer's Disease, a neurodegenerative disease that, in its most common form, is found in people over the age of 65 and is characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and by neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes. Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Clinical depression, a common psychiatric disorder, characterized by a persistent lowering of mood, loss of interest in usual activities and diminished ability to experience pleasure. Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Schizophrenia, a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized by impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social or occupational dysfunction. Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Autism, a brain development disorder that impairs social interaction and communication, and causes restricted and repetitive behavior, all starting before a child is three years old. Behavioral neuroscience - Topic areas in behavioral neuroscience Drug abuse, including alcoholism. Behavioral neuroscience - Nobel Laureates The following Nobel Prize winners could reasonably be considered biological neuroscientists or neurobiologists. (This list omits winners who were almost exclusively neuroanatomists or neurophysiologists; i.e., those that did not measure behavioral or neurobiological variables.) Market segmentation - Behavioural segmentation Behavioural segmentation divides consumers into groups according to their knowledge of, attitude towards, use of or response to a product Behavioral modernity Behavioral modernity is a term used in anthropology, archeology and sociology to refer to a set of traits that distinguish present day humans and their recent ancestors from both other living primates and other extinct hominid lineages. It is the point at which Homo sapiens began to demonstrate an ability to use complex symbolic thought and express cultural creativity. These developments are often thought to be associated with the origin of language. Behavioral modernity There are two main theories regarding when modern human behavior emerged. One theory holds that behavioral modernity occurred as a sudden event some 50 kya (50,000 years ago) in prehistory, possibly as a result of a major genetic mutation or as a result of a biological reorganization of the brain that led to the emergence of modern human natural languages. Proponents of this theory refer to this event as the Great Leap Forward or the Upper Paleolithic Revolution. Behavioral modernity The second theory holds that there was never any single technological or cognitive revolution. Proponents of this view argue that modern human behavior is the result of the gradual accumulation of knowledge, skills and culture occurring over hundreds of thousands of years of human evolution. Proponents of this view include Stephen Oppenheimer in his book Out of Eden, and John Skoyles and Dorion Sagan in their book Up from Dragons: The Evolution of Human Intelligence. Behavioral modernity - Definition Modern human behavior is observed in cultural universals which are the key elements shared by all groups of people throughout the history of humanity. Examples of elements that may be considered cultural universals are language, religion, art, music, myth, cooking, games, and jokes. While some of these traits distinguish Homo sapiens from other species in their degree of articulation in language based culture, some have analogues in animal ethology. Behavioral modernity - Definition A dramatic and sudden increase in complexity of human behavior is thus fully plausible even if significantly less than 1% of humanity developed the genetic ability to "invent", provided that the remaining 99% had no significant problems with "adopting" those inventions Behavioral modernity - Definition However, if the early Homo sapiens hypothetically were genetically inhibited from adopting modern human behaviors, since cultural universals are found in all cultures including some of the most isolated indigenous groups, these traits must have evolved or have been invented in Africa prior to the exodus. Behavioral modernity - Definition Classic archaeologically-accessible evidence of behavioral modernity includes: Behavioral modernity - Definition evidence of long-distance exchange or barter among groups Behavioral modernity - Definition systematic use of pigment (such as ochre) and jewelry for decoration or self-ornamentation Behavioral modernity - Definition figurative art (cave paintings, petroglyphs, figurines) Behavioral modernity - Definition foods being cooked and seasoned instead of being consumed raw Behavioral modernity - Definition A more terse definition of the evidence is the behavioral B's: blades, beads, burials, bone toolmaking, and beauty. Behavioral modernity - Timing Whether modern behavior emerged as a single event or gradually is the subject of vigorous debate. Behavioral modernity - Great leap forward They argue that humans who lived before the leap were behaviorally primitive, indistinguishable from other later extinct hominids such as the Neanderthals or Homo erectus Behavioral modernity - Great leap forward Jared Diamond states that humans of the Acheulean and Mousterian cultures lived in an apparent stasis, experiencing little cultural change. This was followed by a sudden flowering of fine toolmaking, sophisticated weaponry, sculpture, cave painting, body ornaments, and long-distance trade. Humans also expanded into hitherto uninhabited environments, such as Australia and Northern Eurasia. Behavioral modernity - Great leap forward According to this model, the emergence of anatomically modern humans predates the emergence of behaviorally modern humans by over 100 ky. Behavioral modernity - Continuity hypothesis Proponents of the continuity hypothesis hold that no single genetic or biological change is responsible for the appearance of modern behavior. They contend that modern human behavior is the result of sociocultural and sociobiological evolution occurring over hundreds of thousands of years. They further dispute that anatomical modernity predates behavioral modernity, stating that changes in human anatomy and behavioral changes occurred stepwise. Behavioral modernity - Continuity hypothesis The findings of Curtis Marean and his colleagues of fishing and symbolic behavior dating to 164,000 years ago on the southern African coast are also argued to support this analysis Behavioral modernity - Continuity hypothesis A popular analogy is a comparison with the industrial revolution, in which a radical change of accumulated ideas came together to drastically change human behavior and living in just a hundred or so years, despite no change in biology or anatomy Educational psychology - Behavioral perspective Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders. Consumption (economics) - Behavioural Economics and Consumption More recent theoretical approaches are based on behavioral economics and suggest that a number of behavioural principles can be taken as microeconomic foundations for a behaviourally-based aggregate consumption function. Non-breaking space - Non-breaking behavior To avoid this undesirable behaviour, the editor may choose to use a non-breaking space between "100" and "km" Behavioral pattern In software engineering, behavioral design patterns are design patterns that identify common communication patterns between objects and realize these patterns. By doing so, these patterns increase flexibility in carrying out this communication. Behavioral pattern Examples of this type of design pattern include: Behavioral pattern Command pattern: Command objects encapsulate an action and its parameters Behavioral pattern "Externalize the Stack": Turn a recursive function into an iterative one that uses a stack Behavioral pattern Hierarchical visitor pattern: Provide a way to visit every node in a hierarchical data structure such as a tree Behavioral pattern Interpreter pattern: Implement a specialized computer language to rapidly solve a specific set of problems Behavioral pattern Iterator pattern: Iterators are used to access the elements of an aggregate object sequentially without exposing its underlying representation Behavioral pattern Mediator pattern: Provides a unified interface to a set of interfaces in a subsystem Behavioral pattern Memento pattern: Provides the ability to restore an object to its previous state (rollback) Behavioral pattern Null Object pattern: Designed to act as a default value of an object Behavioral pattern Observer pattern: aka Publish/Subscribe or Event Listener. Objects register to observe an event that may be raised by another object Behavioral pattern Protocol stack: Communications are handled by multiple layers, which form an encapsulation hierarchy Behavioral pattern Scheduled-task pattern: A task is scheduled to be performed at a particular interval or clock time (used in real-time computing) Behavioral pattern Single-serving visitor pattern: Optimise the implementation of a visitor that is allocated, used only once, and then deleted Behavioral pattern Specification pattern: Recombinable business logic in a boolean fashion Behavioral pattern State pattern: A clean way for an object to partially change its type at runtime Abnormal psychology - Explaining abnormal behavior The psychological paradigm focuses more on the humanistic, cognitive and behavioral causes and effects of psychopathology Managerial grid model - Behavioral elements Initiative Taking action, driving and supporting Managerial grid model - Behavioral elements Inquiry Questioning, researching and verifying understanding Managerial grid model - Behavioral elements Decision making Evaluating resources, choices and consequences Managerial grid model - Behavioral elements Conflict resolution Confronting and resolving disagreements Managerial grid model - Behavioral elements Resilience Dealing with problems, setbacks and failures Managerial grid model - Behavioral elements Critique Delivering objective, candid feedback Object-oriented programming - Inheritance and behavioral subtyping Behavioral subtyping is undecidable in general, so it cannot be implemented by a program (compiler) Extraversion and introversion - Behavior Extraverts and introverts have a variety of behavioral differences Extraversion and introversion - Behavior Humans are complex and unique, and because introversion-extraversion varies along a continuum, individuals may have a mixture of both orientations. A person who acts introverted in one situation may act extraverted in another, and people can learn to act "against type" in certain situations. Jung's theory states that when someone's primary function is extraverted, his secondary function is always introverted (and vice versa). Applied behavior analysis Applied behavior analysis (ABA), previously known as behavior modification, is the application of behaviorism that modifies human behaviors, especially as part of a learning or treatment process. Behavior analysts focus on the observable relationship of behavior to the environment without resort to "hypothetical constructs". By functionally assessing the relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment, the methods of ABA can be used to change that behavior. Applied behavior analysis However, applied behavior analysis contributes to a full range of areas including: AIDS prevention, business management, conservation of natural resources, education, gerontology, health and exercise, industrial safety, language acquisition, littering, medical procedures, parenting, psychotherapy, seatbelt use, severe mental disorders, sports, substance abuse, and zoo management and care of animals. Applied behavior analysis - Definition ABA is defined as the science in which the principles of the analysis of behavior are applied systematically to improve socially significant behavior, and in which experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for change in behavior. It is one of the three fields of behavior analysis. The other two are conceptual analysis of behavior, or the philosophy of the science; and experimental analysis of behavior, or basic experimental research. Applied behavior analysis - History B.F. Skinner further revised the traditional theory of Behaviorism in the 1930s, and developed the modern form of it known as Behavior Analysis. Applied behavior analysis - History However, the latter is a distinct psychological science of reinforcing behavior. Applied behavior analysis - History The first two articles presented his system for coding behaviors during direct observations and a pioneering investigation of antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, a forerunner of what is now called experimental functional analysis Applied behavior analysis - History Subsequent articles like the 1987 "Behavioral Treatment and Normal Educational and Intellectual Functioning in Young Autistic Children" reinforce this proposal of early and intensive intervention—without the use of aversives (such as electric shocks)—paired with continual therapy yields the most effective results for children with autism Applied behavior analysis - Characteristics Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article is still used as the standard description of ABA. It describes the seven dimensions of ABA: application; a focus on behavior; the use of analysis; and its technological, conceptually-systematic, effective, and general approach. Applied behavior analysis - Applied ABA focuses on areas that are of social significance. In doing this, behavior scientists must take into consideration more than just the short-term behavior change, but also look at how behavior changes can affect the consumer, those who are close to the consumer, and how any change will affect the interactions between the two. Applied behavior analysis - Behavioral (Obviously multidisciplinary work within behavior and psychology may include, for example, analysis of cognition or demographics and exploration of the individual as well, where experimental standards are maintained.) Applied behavior analysis - Analytic Here control may be better called "effect" or "influence", of behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Technological describe a good check for the technological characteristic: "have a person trained in applied behavior analysis carefully read the description and then act out the procedure in detail Applied behavior analysis - Conceptually Systematic A defining characteristic is in regard to the interventions used; and thus research must be conceptually systematic by only using procedures and interpreting results of these procedures in terms of the principles from which they were derived. Applied behavior analysis - Effective ABA must be effective, which means that the application of these techniques changes the behavior it seeks to change. Specifically, it is not a theoretical importance of the variable, but rather the practical importance (social importance) that is essential. If the application of behavioral techniques does not produce a large enough effects for practical value, then the application has failed. Applied behavior analysis - Generality ABA must be general, which means that it persists over time, in different environments, and spreads to other behaviors not directly treated by the intervention. In addition, continued change in specified behavior after intervention for that behavior has been withdrawn is also an example of generality. It is a goal to identify behavior stimuli with long-lasting and general effect. Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics In 2005, Heward, et al. added their belief that the following five characteristics should be added: Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Accountable: Direct and frequent measurement enables analysts to detect their success and failures to make changes in an effort to increase successes while decreasing failures. ABA is a scientific approach in which analysts may guess but then critically test ideas, rather than "guess and guess again." This constant revision of techniques, commitment to effectiveness and analysis of results leads to an accountable science. Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Public: Applied behavior analysis is completely visible and public. This means that there are no explanations that cannot be observed, but of course these are each imposed. There are no mystical, metaphysical explanations, hidden treatment, or magic. Thus, ABA produces results whose explanations are available to all of the public. Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Doable: ABA has a pragmatic element in that implementors of interventions can consist of a variety of individuals, from teachers to the participants themselves. This does not mean that ABA requires one simply to learn a few procedures, but with the proper planning, it can effectively be implemented by almost everyone willing to invest the effort. Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Empowering: ABA provides tools to practitioners that allow them to effectively change behavior. By constantly providing visual feedback to the practitioner on the results of the intervention, this feature of ABA allows clinicians to assess their skill level and builds confidence in their technology. Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Optimistic: According to several leading authors, practitioners skilled in behavior analysis have genuine cause to be optimistic for the following reasons: Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Individual behavior is largely determined by learning and cumulative effects of the environment, which itself is manipulable Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics Direct and continuous measurements enable practitioners to detect small improvements in performance that might have otherwise been missed Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics As a practitioner uses behavioral techniques with positive outcomes, the more they will become optimistic about future success prospects Applied behavior analysis - Proposed additional characteristics The literature provides many examples of success teaching individuals considered previously unteachable. Applied behavior analysis - Behavior Behavior is the activity of living organisms. Human behavior is the entire gamut of what people do including thinking and feeling. Behavior can be determined by applying the Dead Man's test: Applied behavior analysis - Behavior This is obviously only a simple rubric. Applied behavior analysis - Behavior It can either pertain specifically to a set of response classes that are relevant to a particular situation, or it can refer to every behavior that a person can do. Applied behavior analysis - Operant conditioning The term operant emphasizes this point: the organism's behavior operates upon its environment to produce some type of desirable result Applied behavior analysis - Respondent conditioning It is defined as behavior which is elicited by antecedent stimuli Applied behavior analysis - Environment The environment is the entire constellation of stimuli in which an organism exists. This includes events both inside and outside of an organism, but only real physical events are included. The environment consists of stimuli. A stimulus is an "energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells." Applied behavior analysis - Environment Topographically by its physical features. Applied behavior analysis - Environment Temporally by when they occur in respect to the behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Environment Functionally by their effect on behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Reinforcement There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Punishment Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior Applied behavior analysis - Extinction These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures. Applied behavior analysis - Discriminated operant and three-term contingency More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of the behavior occurring or not occurring Applied behavior analysis - Verbal behavior B.F. Skinner's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. Skinner's system includes: Applied behavior analysis - Verbal behavior Mand (psychology) – behavior under control of motivating operations maintained by a characteristic reinforcer. Applied behavior analysis - Verbal behavior Intraverbals – verbal behavior for which the relevant antecedent stimulus was other verbal behavior, but which does not share the response topography of that prior verbal stimulus (e.g., responding to another speaker's question). Applied behavior analysis - Verbal behavior Autoclitic – secondary verbal behavior which alters the effect of primary verbal behavior on the listener. Examples involve quantification, grammar, and qualifying statements (e.g., the differential effects of "I think..." vs. "I know...") Applied behavior analysis - Verbal behavior For assessment of verbal behavior from Skinner's system see Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills. Applied behavior analysis - Measuring behavior When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus. Applied behavior analysis - Repeatability Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—i.e., how many times the behavior occurs. Applied behavior analysis - Repeatability Count is the number of occurrences in behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Repeatability Rate/frequency is the number of instances of behavior per unit of time. Applied behavior analysis - Repeatability Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes over time. Applied behavior analysis - Temporal extent This dimension indicates that each instance of behavior occupies some amount of time—i.e., how long the behavior occurs. Applied behavior analysis - Temporal extent Duration is the amount of time in which the behavior occurs. Applied behavior analysis - Temporal locus Each instance of behavior occurs at a specific point in time—i.e., when the behavior occurs. Applied behavior analysis - Temporal locus Response latency is the measure of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of the response. Applied behavior analysis - Temporal locus Interresponse time is the amount of time that occurs between two consecutive instances of a response class. Applied behavior analysis - Derivative measures Derivative measures are unrelated to specific dimensions: Applied behavior analysis - Derivative measures Percentage is the ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities. Applied behavior analysis - Derivative measures Trials-to-criterion are the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance. Applied behavior analysis - Experimental control In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following: Applied behavior analysis - Experimental control A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data Applied behavior analysis - Experimental control Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable may be quantitatively or qualitatively analyzed Applied behavior analysis - Functional behavior assessment (FBA) Functional assessment of behavior provides hypotheses about the relationships between specific environmental events and behaviors. Decades of research have established that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are learned through interactions with the social and physical environment. FBA is used to identify the type and source of reinforcement for challenging behaviors as the basis for intervention efforts designed to decrease the occurrence of these behaviors. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior The function of a behavior can be thought of as the purpose a behavior serves for a person. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior Behavior can serve the following common functions for an individual: Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior e.g., Child throws toy because it characteristically results in mom's attention. (If this behavior results in mom looking at child and giving him lots of attention—even if she's saying "NO"—he will be more likely to engage in the same behavior in the future to get mom's attention.) Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior e.g., Mom tells the child "Go clean up" and child runs to the kitchen because mom historically will not require him/her to complete the task when this behavior occurs. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior Automatic reinforcement Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior e.g., Child flaps (or other stereotypic, repetitive movement) because it produces perceptual stimulation/sensory consequences. This also includes pain attenuation via removal of unpleasant stimulation (e.g., toothache, stomach pain, fever) Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior e.g., Child hits mom because s/he wants the toy mom is holding and mom typically delivers it following this behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior We can describe behaviors in various ways such as tantrums, noncompliance, inattention, aggression; however all behavior can be classified as serving one or more of the functions above. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior Function is identified in an FBA by identifying the type and source of reinforcement for the behavior of interest. Those reinforcers might be positive or negative social reinforcers provided by someone who interacts with the person, or automatic reinforcers produced directly by the behavior itself. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior Positive reinforcement – social positive reinforcement (attention), tangible reinforcement, and automatic positive reinforcement. Applied behavior analysis - Functions of behavior Negative reinforcement – social negative reinforcement (escape), automatic negative reinforcement. Applied behavior analysis - Function versus topography Therefore, assessment of function of a behavior can yield useful information with respect to intervention strategies that are likely to be effective. Applied behavior analysis - FBA methods Functional (experimental) analysis Applied behavior analysis - Functional (experimental) analysis A functional analysis is one in which antecedents and consequences are manipulated to indicate their separate effects on the behavior of interest. This type of arrangement is often called synthetic because they are not conducted in a naturally occurring context. However, research is indicating that functional analysis done in a natural environment will yield similar or better results. Applied behavior analysis - Functional (experimental) analysis A standard functional analysis normally has four conditions (three test conditions and one control): Applied behavior analysis - Functional (experimental) analysis While the above four conditions are the most widely used functional analysis experimental conditions, using the basic methodology of functional analysis (and experimental analysis in general) it is possible to arrange any combination of antecedents and consequences for behavior to determine what effect, if any, they have on a behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Functional (experimental) analysis Advantages – it has the ability to yield a clear demonstration of the variable(s) that relate to the occurrence of a problem behavior. It serves as the standard of scientific evidence by which other assessment alternatives are evaluated. It represents the method most often used in research on the assessment and treatment of problem behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Functional (experimental) analysis Limitations – assessment process may temporarily strengthen or increase the undesirable behavior to gravely unacceptable levels or result in the behavior acquiring new unpleasant functions. Some behaviors may neither be amenable to functional analyses (e.g., those that, albeit serious, occur infrequently). Functional analyses conducted in contrived settings may not detect the variable that accounts for the occurrence in the natural environment. Applied behavior analysis - Descriptive FBA As with functional analysis, descriptive functional behavior assessment utilizes direct observation of behavior; unlike functional analysis, however, observations are made under naturally occurring conditions. Therefore, descriptive assessments involve observation of the problem behavior in relation to events that are not arranged in a systematic manner. Applied behavior analysis - Descriptive FBA There are three variations of descriptive assessment: There are several forms of Functional Behavioral Assessments they are generally divided into two categories 1)Informal Assessments: Descriptive Assessments 2) Formal Analyses: Analog Functional Analyses, Trial Based Functional Analyses, and single subject research designs. Applied behavior analysis - Descriptive FBA Informal Assessments: This is a general term referring to both a procedure (directly observing the behavior as it occurs in the natural environment), and the outcome (a statement or hypothesis of the variable(s) setting the occasion for and maintaining the occurrence of a particular behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Descriptive FBA The primary elements of a descriptive analysis are the three (A-B-C) and sometimes four term contingency (when Motivational Operations are also considered). 2. A – The Antecedent Condition(s): 3. B - The Behavior of interest (also known as the target behavior) 4. C- The Consequence that follows the occurrence of the behavior(any environmental change that occurs following Applied behavior analysis - Descriptive FBA Observational data are collected (either on a continuous recording basis or using sampling procedures)on these elements and used to develop an hypothesis of function. This hypothesis can be used to develop an behavior intervention plan or as a basis for a more formal analysis of function (i.e Trial based analysis,or analog analysis) Applied behavior analysis - Descriptive FBA Scatterplots – a procedure for recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times than others. Applied behavior analysis - Indirect FBA This method uses structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from persons who are familiar with the person exhibiting the behavior to identify possible conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with the problem behavior. They are called "indirect" because they do not involve direct observation of the behavior, but rather solicit information based on others' recollections of the behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Indirect FBA Advantages – some can provide a useful source of information in guiding subsequent, more objective assessments, and contribute to the development of hypotheses about variables that might occasion or maintain the behaviors of concern. Applied behavior analysis - Indirect FBA Limitations – informants may not have accurate and unbiased recall of behavior and the conditions under which it occurred. Applied behavior analysis - Conducting a FBA Provided the strengths and limitations of the different FBA procedures, FBA can best be viewed as a four-step process: Applied behavior analysis - Conducting a FBA Interpretation of information from indirect and descriptive assessment and formulation of a hypothesis about the purpose of problem behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Conducting a FBA Testing of a hypothesis using a functional analysis. Applied behavior analysis - Conducting a FBA Developing intervention options based on the function of problem behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Task analysis Ivey would later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970–90 Applied behavior analysis - Chaining The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next step may be squeezing the tube, etc. Applied behavior analysis - Chaining For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem behavior. Some behavior therapies, such as dialectical behavior therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain analysis. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting The goal of teaching using prompts would be to fade prompts towards independence, so that no prompts are needed for the individual to perform the desired behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting Vocal prompts: Utilizing a vocalization to indicate the desired response. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting Visual prompts: A visual cue or picture. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting Gestural prompts: Utilizing a physical gesture to indicate the desired response. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting Positional prompt: The target item is placed closer to the individual. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting Modeling: Modeling the desired response for the student. This type of prompt is best suited for individuals who learn through imitation and can attend to a model. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the individual to produce the desired response. There are many degrees of physical prompts. The most intrusive being hand-over-hand, and the least intrusive being a slight tap to initiate movement. Applied behavior analysis - Prompting This is not an exhaustive list of all possible prompts. When using prompts to systematically teach a skill, not all prompts need to be used in the hierarchy; prompts are chosen based on which ones are most effective for a particular individual. Applied behavior analysis - Fading The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill. Applied behavior analysis - Thinning a reinforcement schedule Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a prompt being removed, where thinning refers to the spacing of a reinforcement schedule getting larger. Some support exists that a 30% decrease in reinforcement can be an efficient way to thin. Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency management and token economy systems, especially when developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional practice of behavior analysis). Applied behavior analysis - Generalization Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization. Applied behavior analysis - Shaping Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning principles and extinction Applied behavior analysis - Video modeling One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and motor responses, in some cases for long chains of behavior. Applied behavior analysis - Interventions based on an FBA Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace the problem behaviors as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies. Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism Some critics claimed that the NRC's report was an inside job by behavior analysts but there were no board certified behavior analysts on the panel (which did include physicians, speech pathologists, educators, psychologists, and others) Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism A 2007 clinical report of the American Academy of Pediatrics concluded that the benefit of ABA-based interventions in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) "has been well documented" and that "children who receive early intensive behavioral treatment have been shown to make substantial, sustained gains in IQ, language, academic performance, and adaptive behavior as well as some measures of social behavior." Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism Researchers from the MIND Institute published an evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment approaches in 2008. On the basis of "the strength of the findings from the four best-designed, controlled studies," they were of the opinion that one ABA-based approach (the Lovaas technique created by Ole Ivar Lovaas) is "well-established" for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD. Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism A 2009 review of psycho-educational interventions for children with autism whose mean age was six years or less at intake found that five high-quality ("Level 1" or "Level 2") studies assessed ABA-based treatments. On the basis of these and other studies, the author concluded that ABA is "well-established" and is "demonstrated effective in enhancing global functioning in pre-school children with autism when treatment is intensive and carried out by trained therapists." Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism It determined that EIBI's effect sizes were "generally positive" for IQ, adaptive behavior, expressive language, and receptive language Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism In a 2009 systematic review of 11 studies published from 1987–2007, the researchers wrote "there is strong evidence that EIBI is effective for some, but not all, children with autism spectrum disorders, and there is wide variability in response to treatment." Furthermore, any improvements are likely to be greatest in the first year of intervention. Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism A 2009 meta-analysis of nine studies published from 1987–2007 concluded that EIBI has a "large" effect on full-scale intelligence and a "moderate" effect on adaptive behavior in autistic children. Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism improvements in cognitive performance, language skills, and adaptive behavior skills.":ES-9 However, they also concluded that "the strength of evidence .. Applied behavior analysis - Efficacy in autism Spreckley and Boyd reported that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Applied behavior analysts publish in many journals. Some of the ones considered core journals to behavior analysis are: Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of Organizational Behavior Management Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of Behavioral Education Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of the Analysis of Verbal Behavior Applied behavior analysis - Major journals The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis' Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of Early and Intensive Behavioral Interventions Applied behavior analysis - Major journals The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy Applied behavior analysis - Major journals The Journal of Behavioral Assessment and Intervention in Children Applied behavior analysis - Major journals The Behavioral Development Bulletin Applied behavior analysis - Major journals The Journal of Precision Teaching and Standard Celeration Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of Behavior Analysis of Sports, Health, Fitness, and Behavioral Medicine Applied behavior analysis - Major journals Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim: Treatment and Prevention Applied behavior analysis - Further reading Geraldine Dawson — co-developer of Early Start Denver Model and Chief Science Officer of Autism Speaks Applied behavior analysis - Further reading Mayer, G. Roy; Sulzer-Azaroff, Beth; Wallace, Michele (2011). Behavior Analysis for Lasting Change (2/E ed.). Sloan. ISBN 978-1-59738-032-4. Entrepreneurship - Influences and entrepreneurial behavior The entrepreneur is commonly seen as an innovator — a generator of new ideas and business processes. Management skill and strong team building abilities are often perceived as essential leadership attributes for successful entrepreneurs. Political economist Robert Reich considers leadership, management ability, and team-building to be essential qualities of an entrepreneur. Diffusion of responsibility - Helping behavior Group size significantly influenced the likelihood of helping behavior in a staged emergency: 85% of participants responded with intervention when alone, 62% of participants took action when with one other person, and only 31% did when there were four other bystanders Diffusion of responsibility - Helping behavior In ambiguous situations, the individual's appraisal of the situation and subsequent action or inaction largely depends on the reactions of other people. Other bystanders' interpretation of an emergency situation influences perception of the incident and helping behavior. In one study, diffusion of responsibility does not occur if another bystander is perceived as being unable to help. Diffusion of responsibility - Helping behavior Group psychology can also influence behavior positively; in the event that one bystander takes responsibility for the situation and takes specific action, other bystanders are more likely to follow course. This is a positive example of the usually-pejorative herd mentality. Thus, the presence of bystanders affects individual helping behavior by processes of social influence and diffusion of responsibility. Diffusion of responsibility - Risk-taking behavior In risk-taking literature, diffusion of responsibility occurs when individual members of a group feel less personal responsibility for potential failure in the pursuit of risky options than if acting alone Diffusion of responsibility - Risk-taking behavior Other research suggests that risky shifts can also be attributed to group polarization, majority rules, interpersonal comparisons, informational influence, and familiarization. Like diffusion of responsibility in emergency situations, the larger the size of the group during conditions of discussion and information exchange, the greater the risky shift. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour CE behaviour became prominent with the advent of the social phenomenon of online CE. Creating and stimulating customer engagement behaviour has recently become an explicit aim of both profit and non-profit organisations in the belief that engaging target customers to a high degree is conducive to furthering business objectives. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Shevlin's definition of CE is well suited to understanding the process that leads to an engaged customer. In its adaptation by Richard Sedley the key word is 'investment'. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour "Repeated interactions that strengthen the emotional, psychological or physical investment a customer has in a brand." Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour A customer's degree of engagement with a company lies in a continuum that represents the strength of his investment in that company. Positive experiences with the company strengthen that investment and move the customer down the line of engagement. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour What is important in measuring degrees of involvement is the ability of defining and quantifying the stages on the continuum. One popular suggestion is a four-level model adapted from Kirkpatrick's Levels: Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Understood - A reader understood the content and remembers it Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Applied - A reader applies the content in another venue Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Concerns have, however, been expressed as regards the measurability of stages three and four. Another popular suggestion is Ghuneim's typology of engagement. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Degrees of Engagement Low Medium High Highest Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Bookmarking, Tagging, Adding to group Rating, Voting, Commenting, Endorsing, Favouritising Upload (User Generated Content), Blogging, Fan community participation, Create mash-ups, Podcasting, Vlogging Adding Friends, Networking, Create Fan Community Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour The following consumer typology according to degree of engagement fits well to Ghuneim's continuum. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Engagement is a holistic characterisation of a consumer's behaviour, encompassing a host of sub-aspects of behaviour such as loyalty, satisfaction, involvement, Word of Mouth advertising, complaining and more. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Satisfaction: Satisfaction is simply the foundation, and the minimum requirement, for a continuing relationship with customers. Engagement extends beyond mere satisfaction. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Loyalty - Retention: Highly engaged consumers are more loyal. Increasing the engagement of target customers increases the rate of customer retention. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Word of Mouth advertising - advocacy: Highly engaged customers are more likely to engage in free (for the company), credible (for their audience) Word of Mouth advertising. This can drive new customer acquisition and can have viral effects. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Awareness - Effectiveness of communications: When customers are exposed to communication from a company that they are highly engaged with, they tend to actively elaborate on its central idea. This brings about high degrees of central processing and recall. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Filtering: Consumers filter, categorise and rate the market from head to tail, creating multiple, overlapping folksonomies through tagging, reviewing, rating and recommending. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Complaint-behaviour: Highly engaged customers are less likely to complain to other current or potential customers, but will address the company directly instead. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Marketing intelligence: Highly engaged customers can give valuable recommendations for improving quality of offering. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour The behavioural outcomes of an engaged consumer is what links CE to profits. From this point of view, Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour "CE is the best measure of current and future performance; an engaged relationship is probably the only guarantee for a return on your organisation's or your clients' objectives." Simply attaining a high level of customer satisfaction does not seem to guarantee the customer's business. 60% to 80% of customers who defect to a competitor said they were satisfied or very satisfied on the survey just prior to their defection. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour The main difference between traditional and customer engagement marketing is marked by these shifts: Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour From 'reach or awareness focused' marketing communications and their metrics (GRP or pageview) towards more targeted and customised interactions that prompt the consumer to engage with and act on the content from the outset. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour From absolute distinctions and barriers between an organisation and its target customers towards the participation of consumers in product development, customer service and other aspects of the brand experience. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour From one-way, top-down, formal B2C and B2E interaction to continuing, dialogic, decentralised and personalised communications initiated by either party. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Encouraging collaborative filtering: Google, Amazon, iTunes, Yahoo LAUNCHcast, Netflix, and Rhapsody encourage their consumers to filter, categorise and rate; that is, to market their products Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Community development: Helping target customers develop their own communities or create new ones. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Community participation: (See Communal marketing) Consumers do not filter and rate companies and their offerings within company websites only. Being able, with little effort, cost or technical skills, to create their own online localities, a large percentage of the filtering and rating takes place in non-sponsored, online spaces. Organisations must go and meet their target customers at their favoured online hangouts to not only listen but also participate in the dialogue. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Help consumers engage with one another: Give them content (viral podcasting, videocasting, games, v-cards etc.) they can use to engage with one another. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Solicitation of user generated content: Engage them directly or indirectly with your product by giving them the means or incentive to create user generated content. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Customer self-service: Help them create a customer service FAQ in wiki or blog format. Create a blog where technical support staff and customers can communicate directly. Customer engagement - Customer engagement as consumer behaviour Product co-development: Create a blog where product developers and consumers can communicate directly. Foraging - Factors influencing Foraging Behavior Several factors affect an animal's ability to forage and acquire highly profitable resources. Construction - Authority having jurisdiction In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or sub-agency which regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality in which the building is located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the AHJ. Construction - Authority having jurisdiction Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to verify and have existing utility lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or through a company specializing in such services Construction - Authority having jurisdiction An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code is enforced by the local fire department. Construction - Authority having jurisdiction Changes made to a building that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ for review concerning the building code. Spyware - Effects and behaviors A spyware program is rarely alone on a computer: an affected machine usually has multiple infections. Users frequently notice unwanted behavior and degradation of system performance. A spyware infestation can create significant unwanted CPU activity, disk usage, and network traffic. Stability issues, such as applications freezing, failure to boot, and system-wide crashes are also common. Spyware, which interferes with networking software, commonly causes difficulty connecting to the Internet. Spyware - Effects and behaviors In some infections, the spyware is not even evident. Users assume in those situations that the performance issues relate to faulty hardware, Windows installation problems, or another infection. Some owners of badly infected systems resort to contacting technical support experts, or even buying a new computer because the existing system "has become too slow". Badly infected systems may require a clean reinstallation of all their software in order to return to full functionality. Spyware - Effects and behaviors Moreover, some types of spyware disable software firewalls and anti-virus software, and/or reduce browser security settings, which further open the system to further opportunistic infections. Some spyware disables or even removes competing spyware programs, on the grounds that more spyware-related annoyances make it even more likely that users will take action to remove the programs. Spyware - Effects and behaviors A typical Windows user has administrative privileges, mostly for convenience. Because of this, any program the user runs has unrestricted access to the system. As with other operating systems, Windows users are able to follow the principle of least privilege and use non-administrator accounts. Alternatively, they can also reduce the privileges of specific vulnerable Internet-facing processes such as Internet Explorer. Spyware - Effects and behaviors In Windows Vista, by default, a computer administrator runs everything under limited user privileges. When a program requires administrative privileges, Vista will prompt the user with an allow/deny pop-up (see User Account Control). This improves on the design used by previous versions of Windows. Information seeking - Theories of information-seeking behavior A variety of theories of information behavior – e.g. Zipf's Principle of Least Effort, Brenda Dervin's Sense Making, Elfreda Chatman's Life in the Round – seek to understand the processes that surround information seeking. Information seeking - Theories of information-seeking behavior A review of the literature on information seeking behavior shows that information seeking has generally been accepted as dynamic and non-linear (Foster, 2005; Kuhlthau 2006). People experience the information search process as an interplay of thoughts, feelings and actions (Kuhlthau, 2006). Donald O. Case (2007) also wrote a good book that is a review of the literature. Information seeking - Theories of information-seeking behavior Information seeking has been found to be linked to a variety of interpersonal communication behaviors beyond question-asking, to include strategies such as candidate answers. Information seeking - Theories of information-seeking behavior Robinson’s (2010) research suggests that when seeking information at work, people rely on both other people and information repositories (e.g., documents and databases), and spend similar amounts of time consulting each (7.8% and 6.4% of work time, respectively; 14.2% in total) Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Linguistic communities that form no majority in any country, but whose language has the status of an official language in at least one country: Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Tamil language: 70 million speakers, official status in Sri Lanka and Singapore, regional status in India Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Amharic language: 25 million speakers, official status in Ethiopia Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Kurdish language: 22 million speakers, official status in Iraq Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Afrikaans language: 13 million first or second language speakers (16 million speakers with basic knowledge), official status in South Africa, recognized regional language in Namibia Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Catalan language: 5 million speakers, official status in Andorra, regional official status in Catalonia, the Valencian Community under the name of Valencian, and the Balearic Islands, Spain. It has no official status in Northern Catalonia, France. Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Galician language: 3-4 million speakers, regional official status in Galicia, Spain. Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Welsh language: 622,000 speakers, regional official status in Wales, UK. Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Basque language: 665,800 speakers, regional official status in the Basque Country (autonomous community) and Navarre in Spain. Although It has no official status in the Northern Basque Country in France. Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Irish language: 291,470 native speakers (1.66 million with some knowledge), official status in the Republic of Ireland and an officially recognised minority language in Northern Ireland, UK. Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide M?ori language: 157,110 speakers, official status in New Zealand Minority language - Languages having no majority worldwide Romansh language: 60,000 speakers, official status in Switzerland (Graubünden). Gender - Society and behaviors A large area of research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and social environments. Gender - Society and behaviors A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself, in other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist movement has contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but not restricted to it. Gender - Society and behaviors Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality, with the result being that culturally established gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender Gender - Society and behaviors As the child grows, "...society provides a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or the other," which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender Gender - Society and behaviors Some believe society is constructed in a way that splits gender into a dichotomy via social organisations that constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender. Joan Acker believes gendering occurs in at least five different interacting social processes: Gender - Society and behaviors The construction of divisions along the lines of gender, such as those produced by labor, power, family, the state, even allowed behaviors and locations in physical space Gender - Society and behaviors The construction of symbols and images such as language, ideology, dress and the media, that explain, express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those divisions Gender - Society and behaviors Interactions between men and women, women and women and men and men that involve any form of dominance and submission. Conversational theorists, for example, have studied the way that interruptions, turn taking and the setting of topics re-create gender inequality in the flow of ordinary talk Gender - Society and behaviors The way that the preceding three processes help to produce gendered components of individual identity, i.e., the way they create and maintain an image of a gendered self Gender - Society and behaviors Gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and conceptualising social structures. Gender - Society and behaviors Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens, gender is transfigured into a vehicle for the social division of power Gender - Society and behaviors Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological sex Gender - Society and behaviors The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Judith Butler’s theories of gender performativity Gender - Society and behaviors From the evidence, it can only be concluded that gender is socially constructed and each individual is unique in their gender characteristics, regardless of which biological sex they are, as every child is socialised to behave a certain way and have the ‘proper’ gender attributes Gender - Society and behaviors The difference between the sociological and popular definitions of gender involve a different dichotomy and focus Diode - Small-signal behavior For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A specific example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal circuits. Flapper - Behavior Flappers' behavior was considered outlandish at the time and redefined women's roles Shared leadership - Ratings of team's collective leadership behavior Although this allows leadership quantity to be assessed, it does not pinpoint how many other team members are engaging in leadership behaviors or how many members are looking to the same people for leadership. Shared leadership - Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) They then operationalized shared leadership as the number of members who performed leadership behaviors, as well as the amount of leadership behavior exhibited by the team (calculated by aggregating the leadership ratings for each team member to the team level). Shared leadership - Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) There are advantages and disadvantages to each measurement technique. Although all are attempting to measure the same phenomenon and all have been used in published studies, the particular measure that a researcher uses can impact his or her results. Polymer - Mixing behavior In general, polymeric mixtures are far less miscible than mixtures of small molecule materials Polymer - Mixing behavior Furthermore, the phase behavior of polymer solutions and mixtures is more complex than that of small molecule mixtures. Whereas most small molecule solutions exhibit only an upper critical solution temperature phase transition, at which phase separation occurs with cooling, polymer mixtures commonly exhibit a lower critical solution temperature phase transition, at which phase separation occurs with heating. Polymer - Mixing behavior In dilute solution, the properties of the polymer are characterized by the interaction between the solvent and the polymer Unified Modeling Language - Behavior diagrams Behavior diagrams emphasize what must happen in the system being modeled. Since behavior diagrams illustrate the behavior of a system, they are used extensively to describe the functionality of software systems. Unified Modeling Language - Behavior diagrams Activity diagram: describes the business and operational step-by-step workflows of components in a system. An activity diagram shows the overall flow of control. Unified Modeling Language - Behavior diagrams UML state machine diagram: describes the states and state transitions of the system. Unified Modeling Language - Behavior diagrams Use Case Diagram: describes the functionality provided by a system in terms of actors, their goals represented as use cases, and any dependencies among those use cases. Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance Bubbles in financial markets have been studied not only through historical evidence, but also through experiments, mathematical and statistical works Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance The existence of bubbles and crashes in such a simple context was unsettling for the economics community that tried to resolve the paradox on various features of the experiments. To address these issues Porter and Smith and others performed a series of experiments in which short selling, margin trading, professional traders all led to bubbles a fortiori. Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance Much of the puzzle has been resolved through mathematical modeling and additional experiments Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance An epistemological difference between most microeconomic modeling and these works is that the latter offer an opportunity to test implications of their theory in a quantitative manner. This opens up the possibility of comparison between experiments and world markets. Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance These predictions were confirmed in experiments that showed the importance of “excess cash” (also called liquidity, though this term has other meanings), and trend-based investing in creating bubbles Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance Caginalp's asset flow differential equations provide a link between the laboratory experiments and world market data. Since the parameters can be calibrated with either market, one can compare the lab data with the world market data. Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance The asset flow equations stipulate that price trend is a factor in the supply and demand for an asset that is a key ingredient in the formation of a bubble. While many studies of market data have shown a rather minimal trend effect, the work of Caginalp and DeSantis on large scale data adjusts for changes in valuation, thereby illuminating a strong role for trend, and providing the empirical justification for the modeling. Economic bubble - Bubbles from the perspective of Experimental Economics and Quantitative Behavioral Finance The asset flow equations have been used to study the formation of bubbles from a different standpoint in where it was shown that a stable equilibrium could become unstable with the influx of additional cash or the change to a shorter time scale on the part of the momentum investors Metal-halide lamp - End of life behaviour At the end of life, metal-halide lamps exhibit a phenomenon known as cycling Metal-halide lamp - End of life behaviour Modern electronic ballast designs detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles. If power is removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of startup attempts. Neuroscience - Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience At the cognitive level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry Neuroscience - Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences as well as nascent interdisciplinary fields such as neuroeconomics, decision theory, and social neuroscience to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. Neuroscience - Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience Ultimately neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired Political psychology - Voting behavior The effect of these influences on voting behavior is best understood through theories on the formation of attitudes, beliefs, schema, knowledge structures and the practice of information processing History of psychology - Emergence of behaviorism in America As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology History of psychology - Emergence of behaviorism in America Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology History of psychology - Emergence of behaviorism in America The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals History of psychology - Emergence of behaviorism in America Its application (Applied Behavior Analysis) has become one of the most useful fields of psychology. History of psychology - Emergence of behaviorism in America Behaviorism was the ascendant experimental model for research in psychology for much of the 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in advertising) of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behaviour. Modern girl - Behavior Modern Girls were completely independent, both financially and emotionally. They would work service industry styled jobs and live on their own, not dependent on family. They smoked, watched movies, and hung out at the cafes. They were sexually liberated, choosing their own suitors. Many of them participated in casual sex. In a 1928 short story by Kataoka Teppei, a young typist dates three "modern boys" at the same time. She is described as decadent, hedonistic, and superficial. Modern girl - Behavior Modern girls were not political and did not protest. Each woman sought change via herself. Consumerism drove everything they did. Women were constantly shopping at the new department stores and listening to jazz records. Bonobo - Behavior Primatologist Frans de Waal states bonobos are capable of altruism, compassion, empathy, kindness, patience, and sensitivity, and described "bonobo society" as a "gynecocracy".[a] However, some have disputed how peaceful bonobos are. Bonobo - Social behavior Most studies indicate that females have a higher social status in bonobo society. Aggressive encounters between males and females are rare, and males are tolerant of infants and juveniles. A male derives his status from the status of his mother. The mother–son bond often stays strong and continues throughout life. While social hierarchies do exist, rank plays a less prominent role than in other primate societies. Bonobo - Social behavior Bonobo party size tends to vary because the groups exhibit a fission–fusion pattern. A community of approximately 100 will split into small groups during the day while looking for food, and then will come back together to sleep. They sleep in nests that they construct in trees. Bonobo - Sexual social behavior Sexual activity generally plays a major role in bonobo society, being used as what some scientists perceive as a greeting, a means of forming social bonds, a means of conflict resolution, and postconflict reconciliation. Bonobos are the only non-human animal to have been observed engaging in all of the following sexual activities: face-to-face genital sex (though a pair of western gorillas has been photographed performing face-to-face genital sex), tongue kissing, and oral sex. Bonobo - Sexual social behavior Bonobos do not form permanent monogamous sexual relationships with individual partners. They also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behavior by sex or age, with the possible exception of abstaining from sexual activity between mothers and their adult sons. When bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground, the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity, presumably decreasing tension and encouraging peaceful feeding. Bonobo - Sexual social behavior Female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, "which may be repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and clitoral engorgement"; it is estimated that they engage in this practice "about once every two hours" on average Bonobo - Sexual social behavior Bonobo males occasionally engage in various forms of male–male genital behavior, which is the non-human analog of frotting, engaged in by human males Bonobo - Sexual social behavior More often than the males, female bonobos engage in mutual genital behavior, possibly to bond socially with each other, thus forming a female nucleus of bonobo society Bonobo - Sexual social behavior Bonobo reproductive rates are no higher than those of the common chimpanzee Bonobo - Sexual social behavior It is unknown how the bonobo avoids simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and its effects. Educational technology - Behaviorism This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment that is parallel to human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators. Personality psychology - Behaviorist theories Skinner put forward a "three term contingency model" which helped promote analysis of behavior based on the "Stimulus - Response - Consequence Model" in which the critical question is: "Under which circumstances or antecedent 'stimuli' does the organism engage in a particular behavior or 'response', which in turn produces a particular 'consequence'?" Personality psychology - Behaviorist theories Richard Herrnstein extended this theory by accounting for attitudes and traits. An attitude develops as the response strength (the tendency to respond) in the presences of a group of stimuli become stable. Rather than describing conditionable traits in non-behavioral language, response strength in a given situation accounts for the environmental portion. Herrstein also saw traits as having a large genetic or biological component as do most modern behaviorists. Personality psychology - Behaviorist theories Ivan Pavlov is another notable influence. He is well known for his classical conditioning experiments involving dogs. These physiological studies led him to discover the foundation of behaviorism as well as classical conditioning. Control of fire by early humans - Changes to behavior An important change in the behavior of humans was brought about by the control of fire and its accompanying light. Activity was no longer restricted to the daylight hours. In addition, some mammals and biting insects avoid fire and smoke. Fire also led to improved nutrition by cooked proteins. Control of fire by early humans - Changes to behavior Richard Wrangham of Harvard University argues that cooking of plant foods may have triggered brain expansion by allowing complex carbohydrates in starchy foods to become more digestible and in effect allow humans to absorb more food energy Control of fire by early humans - Changes to behavior Other anthropologists oppose Wrangham, stating that archeological evidence suggests that cooking fires began in earnest only 250,000 BP, when ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint appear across Europe and the Middle East Pharmacology - Behavioral pharmacology People in this field (called behavioral pharmacologists) typically use small animals (e.g Clinical psychology - Behavioral and cognitive behavioral Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including dialectical behavior therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Clinical psychology - Behavioral and cognitive behavioral In addition, multiple intervention programs have come from this tradition including community reinforcement and family training for treating addictions, acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, integrative behavioral couples therapy including dialectical behavior therapy and behavioral activation Self-efficacy - Health behavior change Social-cognitive models of health behavior change cast self-efficacy as predictor, mediator, or moderator. As a predictor, self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. As mediator, self-efficacy can help prevent relapse to unhealthy behavior. As a moderator, self-efficacy can support the translation of intentions into action. See Health Action Process Approach. Behavior-driven development In software engineering, behavior-driven development (abbreviated BDD) is a software development process based on test-driven development (TDD). Behavior-driven development combines the general techniques and principles of TDD with ideas from domain-driven design and object-oriented analysis and design to provide software developers and business analysts with shared tools and a shared process to collaborate on software development, with the aim of delivering "software that matters". Behavior-driven development Although BDD is principally an idea about how software development should be managed by both business interests and technical insight, the practice of BDD does assume the use of specialized software tools to support the development process Behavior-driven development - History Behavior-driven development was developed by Dan North as a response to the issues encountered teaching test-driven development: Behavior-driven development - History How to understand why a test fails Behavior-driven development - History At the heart of BDD is a rethinking of the approach to unit testing and acceptance testing that North came up with while dealing with these issues Behavior-driven development - History Starting from this point, North and others developed the BDD framework over a period of years, finally framing it as a communication and collaboration framework for developers, QA and non-technical or business participants in a software project. During the "Agile specifications, BDD and Testing eXchange" in November 2009 in London, Dan North gave the following description of BDD: Behavior-driven development - History BDD is a second-generation, outside-in, pull-based, multiple-stakeholder, multiple-scale, high-automation, agile methodology. It describes a cycle of interactions with well-defined outputs, resulting in the delivery of working, tested software that matters. Behavior-driven development - History Dan North created the first ever BDD framework, JBehave, followed by a story-level BDD framework for Ruby called RBehave which was later integrated into the RSpec project. He also worked with David Chelimsky, Aslak Hellesøy and others to develop RSpec and also to write "The RSpec Book: Behaviour Driven Development with RSpec, Cucumber, and Friends". The first story-based framework in RSpec was later replaced by Cucumber mainly developed by Aslak Hellesøy. Behavior-driven development - History In 2008, Chris Matts, who was involved in the first discussions around BDD, came up with the idea of Feature Injection, allowing BDD to cover the analysis space and provide a full treatment of the software lifecycle from vision through to code and release. Behavior-driven development - History Risks with the BDD approach include communication breakdowns between Developers and Business Stakeholders. This communication can break down if the developer lacks the ability to effectively get the best feedback from business users, or if the business users lack the background to understand technical issues that affect them. Behavior-driven development - Principles of BDD At its core, behavior-driven development is a specialized version of test-driven development which focuses on behavioral specification of software units. Behavior-driven development - Principles of BDD Test-driven development is a software development methodology which essentially states that for each unit of software, a software developer must: Behavior-driven development - Principles of BDD define a test set for the unit first; Behavior-driven development - Principles of BDD finally verify that the implementation of the unit makes the tests succeed. Behavior-driven development - Principles of BDD This definition is rather non-specific in that it allows tests in terms of high-level software requirements, low-level technical details or anything in between. The original developer of BDD (Dan North) came up with the notion of BDD because he was dissatisfied with the lack of any specification within TDD of what should be tested and how. One way of looking at BDD therefore, is that it is a continued development of TDD which makes more specific choices than TDD. Behavior-driven development - Principles of BDD Behavior-driven development specifies that tests of any unit of software should be specified in terms of the desired behavior of the unit. Borrowing from agile software development the "desired behavior" in this case consists of the requirements set by the business — that is, the desired behavior that has business value for whatever entity commissioned the software unit under construction. Within BDD practice, this is referred to as BDD being an "outside-in" activity. Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications BDD specifies that business analysts and developers should collaborate in this area and should specify behavior in terms of user stories, which are each explicitly written down in a dedicated document Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications The story should have a clear, explicit title. Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications A short, introductory section that specifies Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications who (which business or project role) is the driver or primary stakeholder of the story (the actor who derives business benefit from the story) Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications what business value the stakeholder will derive from this effect Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications a description of each specific case of the narrative. Such a scenario has the following structure: Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications It starts by specifying the initial condition that is assumed to be true at the beginning of the scenario. This may consist of a single clause, or several. Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Finally, it states the expected outcome, in one or more clauses. Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications BDD does not have any formal requirements for exactly how these user stories must be written down, but it does insist that each team using BDD come up with a simple, standardized format for writing down the user stories which includes the elements listed above. However, in 2007 Dan North suggested a template for a textual format which has found wide following in different BDD software tools. A very brief example of this format might look like this: Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications I want to add items back to stock when they're returned Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Scenario 1: Refunded items should be returned to stock Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Given a customer previously bought a black sweater from me Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications And I currently have three black sweaters left in stock Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Then I should have four black sweaters in stock Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Scenario 2: Replaced items should be returned to stock Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Given that a customer buys a blue garment Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications And I have two blue garments in stock Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications When he returns the garment for a replacement in black, Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications Then I should have three blue garments in stock Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications The scenarios are ideally phrased declaratively rather than imperatively — in the business language, with no reference to elements of the UI through which the interactions take place. Behavior-driven development - Behavioral specifications This format is sometimes (somewhat imprecisely) referred to as the Gherkin language, which has a syntax similar to the above example. The term Gherkin, however, is specific to the Cucumber and Behat software tools. Behavior-driven development - Specification as a ubiquitous language Behavior-driven development borrows the concept of the ubiquitous language from domain driven design Behavior-driven development - Specification as a ubiquitous language BDD uses the specification of desired behavior as a ubiquitous language for the project team members. This is the reason that BDD insists on a semi-formal language for behavioral specification: some formality is a requirement for being a ubiquitous language. In addition, having such a ubiquitous language creates a domain model of specifications, so that specifications may be reasoned about formally. This model is also the basis for the different BDD-supporting software tools that are available. Behavior-driven development - Specification as a ubiquitous language The example given above establishes a user story for a software system under development Behavior-driven development - Specialized tooling support Much like test-driven design practice, behavior-driven development assumes the use of specialized support tooling in a project. Inasmuch as BDD is, in many respects, a more specific version of TDD, the tooling for BDD is similar to that for TDD, but makes more demands on the developer than basic TDD tooling. Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles In principle a BDD support tool is a testing framework for software, much like the tools that support TDD. However, where TDD tools tend to be quite free-format in what is allowed for specifying tests, BDD tools are linked to the definition of the ubiquitous language discussed earlier. Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles As discussed, the ubiquitous language allows business analysts to write down behavioral requirements in a way that will also be understood by developers. The principle of BDD support tooling is to make these same requirements documents directly executable as a collection of tests. The exact implementation of this varies per tool, but agile practice has come up with the following general process: Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles The tooling reads a specification document. Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles The tooling directly understands completely formal parts of the ubiquitous language (such as the Given keyword in the example above). Based on this, the tool breaks each scenario up into meaningful clauses. Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles Each individual clause in a scenario is transformed into some sort of parameter for a test for the user story. This part requires project-specific work by the software developers. Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles The framework then executes the test for each scenario, with the parameters from that scenario. Behavior-driven development - Tooling principles Dan North has developed a number of frameworks that support BDD (including JBehave and RBehave), whose operation is based on the template that he suggested for recording user stories. These tools use a textual description for use cases and several other tools (such as CBehave) have followed suit. However, this format is not required and so there are other tools that use other formats as well. For example Fitnesse (which is built around decision tables), has also been used to roll out BDD. Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples There are several different examples of BDD software tools in use in projects today, for different platforms and programming languages. Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples Consider an implementation of the Game of Life. A domain expert (or business analyst) might want to specify what should happen when someone is setting up a starting configuration of the game grid. To do this, he might want to give an example of a number of steps taken by a person who is toggling cells. Skipping over the narrative part, he might do this by writing up the following scenario into a plain text document (which is the type of input document that JBehave reads): Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples The bold print is not actually part of the input; it is included here to show which words are recognized as formal language Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples public void theGameIsRunning(int width, int height) { Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples @When("I toggle the cell at ($column, $row)") Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples public void iToggleTheCellAt(int column, int row) { Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples assertThat(renderer.asString(), equalTo(grid)); Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples The code has a method for every type of clause in a scenario Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples The theGameIsRunning method reacts to a Given clause by setting up the initial game grid. Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples The iToggleTheCellAt method reacts to a When clause by firing off the toggle event described in the clause. Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples The theGridShouldLookLike method reacts to a Then clause by comparing the actual state of the game grid to the expected state from the scenario. Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples The primary function of this code is to be a bridge between a text file with a story and the actual code being tested. Note that the test code has access to the code being tested (in this case an instance of Game) and is very simple in nature (has to be, otherwise a developer would end up having to write tests for his tests). Behavior-driven development - Tooling examples Finally, in order to run the tests, JBehave requires some plumbing code that identifies the text files which contain scenarios and which inject dependencies (like instances of Game) into the test code. This plumbing code is not illustrated here, since it is a technical requirement of JBehave and does not relate directly to the principle of BDD-style testing. Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification A separate subcategory of behavior-driven development is formed by tools that use specifications as an input language rather than user stories Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification Then a pop operation returns E Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification Such a specification may exactly specify the behavior of the component being tested, but is less meaningful to a business user. As a result, specification-based testing is seen in BDD practice as a complement to story-based testing and operates at a lower level. Specification testing is often seen as a replacement for free-format unit testing. Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification Specification testing tools like RSpec and JDave are somewhat different in nature than tools like JBehave. Since they are seen as alternatives to basic unit testing tools like JUnit, these tools tend to favor forgoing the separation of story and testing code and prefer embedding the specification directly in the test code instead. For example, an RSpec test for a hashtable might look like this: Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification it "should return a blank instance" do Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification it "should hash the correct information in a key" do Behavior-driven development - Story versus specification This example shows a specification in readable language embedded in executable code. In this case a choice of the tool is to formalize the specification language into the language of the test code by adding methods named it and should. Also there is the concept of a specification precondition – the before section establishes the preconditions that the specification is based on. MOS Technology 6502 - Detailed behavior The processor's non-maskable interrupt (NMI) input is edge sensitive, which means that the interrupt is triggered by the falling edge of the signal rather than its level. MOS Technology 6502 - Detailed behavior The simultaneous assertion of the NMI (non-maskable) and IRQ (maskable) hardware interrupt lines causes IRQ to be ignored. However, if the IRQ line remains asserted after the servicing of the NMI, the processor will immediately respond to IRQ, as IRQ is level sensitive. Thus a sort of built-in interrupt priority was established in the 6502 design. MOS Technology 6502 - Detailed behavior The "Break" flag of the processor is very different from the other flag bits. It has no flag setting, resetting, and testing instructions of its own, and is not handled by the PHP and PLP instructions either. It exists only on the stack, where BRK and PHP always write a 1, while IRQ and NMI always write a 0. MOS Technology 6502 - Detailed behavior The "SO" input pin, when asserted, would set the processor's overflow status bit (deasserting it does not clear the overflow bit, however) Rootkit - Behavioral-based The behavioral-based approach to detecting rootkits attempts to infer the presence of a rootkit by looking for rootkit-like behavior Rootkit - Behavioral-based Logs from a packet analyzer, firewall or intrusion prevention system may present evidence of rootkit behaviour in a networked environment. Cognitive science - Behavioral experiments Behavioral choices are when a person selects between two or more options (e.g., voting behavior, choice of a punishment for another participant). Cognitive science - Behavioral experiments Reaction time. The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing. Cognitive science - Behavioral experiments Psychophysical responses. Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include: Cognitive science - Behavioral experiments Eye tracking Computational neuroscience - Behaviors of networks Biological neurons are connected to each other in a complex, recurrent fashion. These connections are, unlike most artificial neural networks, sparse and usually specific. It is not known how information is transmitted through such sparsely connected networks. It is also unknown what the computational functions of these specific connectivity patterns are, if any. Computational neuroscience - Behaviors of networks The interactions of neurons in a small network can be often reduced to simple models such as the Ising model Computational neuroscience - Behaviors of networks In some cases the complex interactions between inhibitory and excitatory neurons can be simplified using mean field theory, which gives rise to the population model of neural networks Online shopping - Impact of reviews on consumer behaviour One of the great benefits of online shopping is the ability to read product reviews, written either by experts or fellow online shoppers. Online shopping - Impact of reviews on consumer behaviour The Nielsen Company conducted a survey in March 2010 and polled more than 27,000 Internet users in 55 markets from the Asia-Pacific, Europe, Middle East, North America, and South America to look at questions such as "How do consumers shop online?", "What do they intend to buy?", "How do they use various online shopping web pages?", and the impact of Social Media and other factors that come into play when consumers are trying to decide how to spend their money on which product or service Online shopping - Impact of reviews on consumer behaviour In addition to online reviews, peer recommendations on online shopping pages or Social Media websites play a key role for online shoppers when they are researching future purchases. 90% of all purchases made are influenced by Social Media.Each day, over two million buyers are shopping online for jewelry. MOO - Social Behavior on MOOs Behavior on social MOOs and role-playing MOOs has been shown to differ Psychological effects of Internet use - Effects of social networking and behavior Evgeny Morozov has said that social networking could be potentially harmful to people Psychological effects of Internet use - Effects of social networking and behavior Sherry Turkle discuss in her book "Alone together" the effects of Internet and Social Media on our behavior Nuclear magnetic resonance - Spin behavior in a magnetic field Consider nuclei which have a spin of one-half, like 1H, 13C or 19F. The nucleus has two possible spin states: m = 1?2 or m = ?1?2 (also referred to as spin-up and spin-down, or sometimes ? and ? spin states, respectively). These states are degenerate, that is they have the same energy. Hence the number of atoms in these two states will be approximately equal at thermal equilibrium. Nuclear magnetic resonance - Spin behavior in a magnetic field If a nucleus is placed in a magnetic field, however, the interaction between the nuclear magnetic moment and the external magnetic field mean the two states no longer have the same energy. The energy of a magnetic moment ? when in a magnetic field B0 is given by: Nuclear magnetic resonance - Spin behavior in a magnetic field Usually the z axis is chosen to be along B0, and the above expression reduces to: Nuclear magnetic resonance - Spin behavior in a magnetic field As a result the different nuclear spin states have different energies in a non-zero magnetic field. In less formal language, we can talk about the two spin states of a spin 1?2 as being aligned either with or against the magnetic field. If ? is positive (true for most isotopes) then m = 1?2 is the lower energy state. Nuclear magnetic resonance - Spin behavior in a magnetic field and this difference results in a small population bias toward the lower energy state. Swordfish - Behavior and ecology Contrary to popular belief, the "sword" is not used to spear, but instead may be used to slash at its prey to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch. Mainly, the swordfish relies on its great speed and agility in the water to catch its prey. It is undoubtedly among the fastest fish, but the basis for the frequently quoted speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) is unreliable. Swordfish - Behavior and ecology Swordfish prefer water temperatures between 18 and 22°C, but have the widest tolerance among billfish, and can be found from 5 to 27 °C (41 to 81 °F) Swordfish - Behavior and ecology Swordfish are not schooling fish Swordfish - Behavior and ecology Except for humans, fully adult swordfish have few enemies. Among marine mammals, killer whales sometimes prey on adult swordfish. The shortfin mako, an exceptionally fast species of shark, sometimes take on swordfish; dead or dying shortfin makos have been found with broken-off swords in their heads, revealing the danger of this type of prey. Juvenile swordfish are far more vulnerable to predation, and are eaten by a wide range of predatory fish. University of Amsterdam - Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences The Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences (Dutch: Faculteit der Maatschappij- en Gedragswetenschappen) (FMG) is the largest educational and research institution in the social and behavioural sciences in the Netherlands Odor - Behavioral cues Odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior Odor - Behavioral cues Human body odors are involved in adaptive behaviors, such as parental attachment in infants or partner choice in adults Odor - Behavioral cues How a man smells is critical for woman to find a lover Odor - Behavioral cues Studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates Odor - Behavioral cues An odor can cue recall of a distant memory. Most memories that pertain to odor come from the first decade of life, compared to verbal and visual memories which usually come from the 10th to 30th years of life. Odor-evoked memories are more emotional, associated with stronger feelings of being brought back in time, and have been thought of less often as compared to memories evoked by other cues. Ostrich - Behaviour and ecology Ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or alone Ostrich - Behaviour and ecology With their acute eyesight and hearing, ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away Ostrich - Behaviour and ecology This myth likely began with Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed." This may have been a misunderstanding of their sticking their heads in the sand to swallow sand and pebbles, or, as National Geographic suggests, of the defensive behavior of lying low, so that they may appear from a distance to have their head buried. Electromagnetic field - Reciprocal behavior of electric and magnetic fields The two Maxwell equations, Faraday's Law and the Ampère-Maxwell Law, illustrate a very practical feature of the electromagnetic field. Faraday's Law may be stated roughly as 'a changing magnetic field creates an electric field'. This is the principle behind the electric generator. Electromagnetic field - Reciprocal behavior of electric and magnetic fields Ampere's Law roughly states that 'a changing electric field creates a magnetic field'. Thus, this law can be applied to generate a magnetic field and run an electric motor. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) The Organization of Behavior is considered Hebb's most significant contribution to the field of neuroscience. A combination of his years of work in brain surgery mixed with his study of human behavior, it finally brought together the two realms of human perception that for a long time could not be connected properly. That is, it connected the biological function of the brain as an organ together with the higher function of the mind. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) In 1929, Hans Berger discovered that the mind exhibits continuous electrical activity and cast doubt on the Pavlovian model of perception and response because, now, there appeared to be something going on in the brain even without much stimulus. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) At the same time, there were many mysteries. For example, if there was a method for the brain to recognize a circle, how does it recognize circles of various sizes or imperfect roundness? To accommodate every single possible circle that could exist, the brain would need a far greater capacity than it has. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) Another theory, the Gestalt psychology|Gestalt theory, stated that signals to the brain established a sort of field. The form of this field depended only on the pattern of the inputs, but it still could not explain how this field was understood by the mind. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) The behaviorist theories at the time did well at explaining how the processing of patterns happened. However, they could not account for how these patterns made it into the mind. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) Hebb combined up-to-date data about behavior and the mind into a single theory. And, while the understanding of the anatomy of the brain did not advance much since the development of the older theories on the operation of the brain, he was still able to piece together a theory that got a lot of the important functions of the brain right. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) His theory became known as Hebbian theory and the models which follow this theory are said to exhibit Hebbian learning. This method of learning is best expressed by this quote from the book: Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) This is often paraphrased as Neurons that fire together wire together. It is commonly referred to as Hebb's Law. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) The combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as cell-assemblies. And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain's response to stimuli. Donald Hebb - The Organization of Behavior (1949) Not only did Hebb's model for the working of the mind influence how psychologists understood the processing of stimuli within the mind but also it opened up the way for the creation of computational machines that mimicked the biological processes of a living nervous system Emergent behavior In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, 'emergence' is the way complex systems and patterns arise out of a :wikt:multiplicity|multiplicity of relatively simple interactions. Emergence is central to the theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. Emergent behavior Biology can be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of chemistry which, in turn, can be viewed as an emergent property of particle physics. Similarly, psychology could be understood as an emergent property of neurobiological dynamics, and free-market theories understand economy as an emergent feature of psychology. Emergent behavior - Definitions The idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of Aristotle.Aristotle, Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics, Book H 1045a 8-10: .. Emergent behavior - Definitions Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same -- their difference, when their directions are contrary Emergent behavior - Definitions Economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal Emergence. Goldstein initially defined emergence as: the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems. Emergent behavior - Definitions Goldstein's definition can be further elaborated to describe the qualities of this definition in more detail: Emergent behavior - Definitions The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro level (i.e. there is some property of wholeness); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is ostensive (it can be perceived). For good measure, Goldstein throws in supervenience -- downward causation. Emergent behavior - Definitions Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact “generate” anything Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence Usage of the notion emergence may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of weak emergence and strong emergence. Weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation. This is opposed to the older notion of strong emergence, in which the emergent property cannot be simulated by a computer. Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive. Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at an elemental level. However, it is stipulated that the properties can be determined by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of A priori and a posteriori|a priori analysis. Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible to the system's constituent parts. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. It follows that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence However, the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts. Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence The plausibility of strong emergence is questioned by some as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes: Emergent behavior - Strong and weak emergence Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic Emergent behavior - Objective or subjective quality The properties of complexity and organization of any system are considered by Crutchfield to be Subjectivity|subjective Quality (philosophy)|qualities determined by the observer. Emergent behavior - Objective or subjective quality Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities Emergent behavior - Objective or subjective quality On the other hand, Peter Corning argues Must the synergies be perceived/observed in order to qualify as emergent effects, as some theorists claim? Most emphatically not. The synergies associated with emergence are real and measurable, even if nobody is there to observe them. Emergent behavior - Emergence in philosophy, religion, art and human sciences In philosophy, 'emergence' is often understood to be a much weaker claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann, one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this categorial novum (new category). Emergent behavior - Emergence in philosophy, religion, art and human sciences In religion, 'emergence' grounds expressions of religious naturalism in which a sense of the sacred is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more Complexity|complex forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in a 2006 essay titled 'The Sacred Emergence of Nature' by Ursula Goodenough and Terrence Deacon and a 2006 essay titled by Stuart Kauffman. Emergent behavior - Emergence in philosophy, religion, art and human sciences In art, 'emergence' is used to explore the origins of novelty, creativity, and authorship Emergent behavior - Emergence in philosophy, religion, art and human sciences In international development, concepts of 'emergence' have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere) Emergent behavior - Emergence in philosophy, religion, art and human sciences In postcolonial studies, the term Emerging Literature refers to a contemporary body of texts that is gaining momentum in the global literary landscape (v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. Emerging Literatures, Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996). By opposition, emergent literature is rather a concept used in the theory of literature. Emergent behavior - Emergent properties and processes An 'emergent behavior' or 'emergent property' can appear when a number of simple entity|entities (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective. If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales. In other words there is often a form of top-down feedback in systems with emergent properties.See, e.g., Emergent behavior - Emergent properties and processes The shape and behaviour of a flock of birds or school of fish are good examples of emergent properties. Emergent behavior - Emergent properties and processes One reason why emergent behaviour is hard to predict is that the number of interactions between components of a system increases exponentially with the number of components, thus potentially allowing for many new and subtle types of behaviour to emerge. Emergent behavior - Emergent properties and processes In some cases, the system has to reach a combined threshold of diversity, organisation, and connectivity before emergent behaviour appears. Emergent behavior - Emergent properties and processes Instead a component implements a behaviour whose side effect contributes to the global functionality Each behaviour has a side effect and the sum of the side effects gives the desired functionality Emergent behavior - Emergent properties and processes Systems with emergent properties or emergent structures may appear to defy entropy|entropic principles and the second law of thermodynamics, because they form and increase order despite the lack of command and central control. This is possible because open systems can extract information and order out of the environment. Emergent behavior - Emergent structures in nature 'Emergent structures' are patterns that emerge via collective actions of many individual entities Emergent behavior - Emergent structures in nature Emergent structures can be found in many natural phenomena, from the physical to the biological domain. For example, the shape of weather phenomena such as hurricanes are emergent structures. The development and growth of complex, orderly crystals, as driven by the random motion of water molecules within a conducive natural environment, is another example of an emergent process, where randomness can give rise to complex and deeply attractive, orderly structures. Emergent behavior - Emergent structures in nature It is useful to distinguish three forms of emergent structures Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems In physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems. Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems An emergent property need not be more complicated than the underlying non-emergent properties which generate it. For instance, the laws of thermodynamics are remarkably simple, even if the laws which govern the interactions between component particles are complex. The term emergence in physics is thus used not to signify complexity, but rather to distinguish which laws and concepts apply to macroscopic scales, and which ones apply to microscopic scales. Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems *Classical mechanics: The laws of classical mechanics can be said to emerge as a limiting case from the rules of quantum mechanics applied to large enough masses. This may be puzzling, because quantum mechanics is generally thought of as more complicated than classical mechanics. Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems *Friction: Forces between elementary particles are conservative. However, friction emerges when considering more complex structures of matter, whose surfaces can convert mechanical energy into heat energy when rubbed against each other. Similar considerations apply to other emergent concepts in continuum mechanics such as viscosity, Elasticity (physics)|elasticity, tensile strength, etc. Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems *Patterned ground: the distinct, and often symmetrical geometric shapes formed by ground material in periglacial regions. Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems *Statistical mechanics was initially derived using the concept of a large enough statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)|ensemble that fluctuations about the most likely distribution can be all but ignored Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems Temperature is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems Convection in a liquid or gas is another example of emergent macroscopic behaviour that makes sense only when considering differentials of temperature Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems In some theories of particle physics, even such basic structures as mass, space, and time are viewed as emergent phenomena, arising from more fundamental concepts such as the Higgs boson or string theory|strings Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems Most of the laws of physics themselves as we experience them today appear to have emerged during the course of time making emergence the most fundamental principle in the universe and raising the question of what might be the most fundamental law of physics from which all others emerged Emergent behavior - Non-living, physical systems In Laughlin's book, he explains that for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and that macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions Emergent behavior - A broader example of emergent properties in biology is viewed in the biological organisation of life, ranging from the subatomic level to the entire biosphere Emergent behavior - Spontaneous order Groups of human beings, left free to each regulate themselves, tend to produce spontaneous order, rather than the meaningless chaos often feared Emergent behavior - Spontaneous order Emergent processes or behaviours can be seen in many other places, such as cities, cabal and market-dominant minority phenomena in economics, organizational phenomena in computer simulations and cellular automata Emergent behavior - Money, insofar as being a medium of exchange and of deferred payment, is also an example of an emergent phenomenon between market participators. In their strive to possess a commodity with greater marketability than their own commodity, such that the possession of these more marketable commodities (money) facilitate the search for commodities that participators want (e.g. consumables). Emergent behavior - ::Austrian school economist Carl Menger wrote in his work Principles of Economics, As each economizing individual becomes increasingly more aware of his economic interest, he is led by this interest, without any agreement, without legislative compulsion, and even without regard to the public interest, to give his commodities in exchange for other, more saleable, commodities, even if he does not need them for any immediate consumption purpose Emergent behavior - Emergent structures appear at many different integrative level|levels of organization or as spontaneous order. Emergent self-organization appears frequently in city|cities where no planning or zoning entity predetermines the layout of the city. The interdisciplinary study of emergent behaviors is not generally considered a wiktionary:Homogeneous|homogeneous field, but divided across its application or problem function domain|domains. Emergent behavior - Architects and Landscape Architects may not design all the pathways of a complex of buildings. Instead they might let usage patterns emerge and then place pavement where pathways have become worn in. Emergent behavior - The on-course action and vehicle progression of the DARPA Grand Challenge|2007 Urban Challenge could possibly be regarded as an example of cybernetic emergence. Patterns of road use, indeterministic obstacle clearance times, etc. will work together to form a complex emergent pattern that can not be deterministically planned in advance. Emergent behavior - The architectural school of Christopher Alexander takes a deeper approach to emergence attempting to rewrite the process of urban growth itself in order to affect form, establishing a new methodology of planning and design tied to traditional practices, an . Urban emergence has also been linked to theories of urban complexity and urban evolution . Emergent behavior - Building ecology is a conceptual framework for understanding architecture and the built environment as the interface between the dynamically interdependent elements of buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment Emergent behavior - He has also likened emergent phenomena to the analysis of market trends and employee behavior.Bonabeau E Emergent behavior - Computational emergent phenomena have also been utilized in architectural design processes, for example for formal explorations and experiments in digital materiality.Roudavski, Stanislav and Gwyllim Jahn (2012). 'Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System', in 15th Generative Art Conference, ed. by Celestino Soddu (Lucca, Italy: Domus Argenia), pp. 348-363 Emergent behavior - Computer AI Some artificially intelligent computer applications utilize emergent behavior for animation. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds. Emergent behavior - Language It has been argued that the structure and regularity of language--grammar, or at least language change, is an emergence phenomenon .While each speaker merely tries to reach his or her own communicative goals, he or she uses language in a particular way Emergent behavior - Emergent change processes Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, Appreciative Inquiry, Future Search, the World Cafe or Knowledge Cafe, Open Space Technology, and others. (Holman, 2010) Behavior-based AI 'Behavior-based robotics' or 'behavioral robotics' is an approach in robotics that focuses on robots that are able to exhibit complex-appearing behaviors despite little internal variable (programming)|variable state to model its immediate environment, mostly gradually correcting its actions via sensor-motor links. Behavior-based AI - How they work Most behavior-based systems are also reactive planning|reactive, which means they need no programming of internal representations of what a chair looks like, or what kind of surface the robot is moving on. Instead all the information is gleaned from the input of the robot's sensors. The robot uses that information to gradually correct its actions according to the changes in immediate environment. Behavior-based AI - How they work Behavior-based robots (BBR) usually show more biological-appearing actions than their computing-intensive counterparts, which are very deliberate in their actions Behavior-based AI - History Brooks' papers, often written with lighthearted titles such as Planning is just a way of avoiding figuring out what to do next, the anthropomorphic qualities of his robots, and the relatively low cost of developing such robots, popularized the behavior-based approach. Behavior-based AI - History Brooks' work builds - whether by accident or not - on two prior milestones in the behavior-based approach. In the 1950s, William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter, an English scientist with a background in neurology|neurological research, built a pair of vacuum tube-based robots that were exhibited at the 1951 Festival of Britain, and which have simple but effective behavior-based control systems. Behavior-based AI - History The second milestone is Valentino Braitenberg|Valentino Braitenberg's 1984 book, Vehicles - Experiments in Synthetic Psychology (MIT Press). He describes a series of thought experiments demonstrating how simply wired sensor/motor connections can result in some complex-appearing behaviors such as fear and love. Behavior-based AI - History Later work in BBR is from the BEAM robotics community, which has built upon the work of Mark Tilden. Tilden was inspired by the reduction in the computational power needed for walking mechanisms from Brooks' experiments (which used one microcontroller for each leg), and further reduced the computational requirements to that of logic chips, transistor-based electronics, and analog electrical network|circuit design. Behavior-based AI - History A different direction of development includes extensions of behavior-based robotics to multi-robot teams. The focus in this work is on developing simple generic mechanisms that result in coordinated group behavior, either implicitly or explicitly. Behaviorism The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiology|physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs. Behaviorism Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning although he did not necessarily agree with behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B Behaviorism In addition, behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the birth of a human to their death (see Behavior analysis of child development). Behaviorism - Versions There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include: Behaviorism - Versions * John B. Watson#Behaviorism|Methodological: The behaviorism of John B. Watson|Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no internal states; thought is covert speech. Behaviorism - Versions * Radical behaviorism|Radical: B.F. Skinner|Skinner's behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionistic; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states are not considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowing and language. Behaviorism - Versions * Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes. Behaviorism - Versions * Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states (within the skin once meant unobservable, but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclecticism|eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony. Behaviorism - Versions * Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems. Behaviorism - Versions PB laid the basis for cognitive behavior therapy, provides basic theory and research that unifies emotional and behavioral conditioning, and introduces new avenues for basic and applied behavior analysis.Staats, Arthur W.; Staats, Carolyn K.: Complex human behavior: A systematic extension of learning principles Behaviorism - Versions * Clark L. Hull|Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological; Behaviorism - Versions * Purposive: Edward C. Tolman|Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology Behaviorism - Definition Another way of looking at behaviorism is through the lens of egoism, which is defined to be a causal analysis of the elements that define human behavior with a strong social component involved. Behaviorism - Experimental and conceptual innovations This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms and Schedules of Reinforcement Behaviorism - Experimental and conceptual innovations An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior. Behaviorism - Relation to language As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal Behavior (book)|Verbal Behavior and other language-related publications;; chapter in Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky. Behaviorism - Relation to language Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of Relational Frame Theory. Behaviorism - Behaviourism and education Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and the discouragement of bad habits Behaviorism - Behaviourism and education Within the behaviourist view of learning, the teacher is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong Behaviorism - Behaviourism and education The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered superficial as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the internal processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process. For More Information, Visit: store.theartofservice.com/itil-2011-foundation-complete-certification-kit-fourth-edition-study-guide-ebook-and-online-course.html